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Type: Prelims Only

  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Majorana 1 Chip and the Pursuit of Quantum Computing

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles

    Why in the News?

    In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.

    About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind

    • Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
    • This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
    • Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
    • This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
    • This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
    • Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
      • This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
      • They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
      • Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.

    Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):

    • Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
    1. Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
    2. Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
    • What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
      • If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
      • This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.

    AMoRE Experiment:

    • The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
    • The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
    • While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.

    Scientific Significance:

    • The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
    • Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

    Why in the News?

    SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

    About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

    • The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
    • The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
    • Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
    • Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
    • The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
    • The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

    Features and Significance:

    • Unique Orbital Path:
      • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
      • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
    • Scientific Research:
      • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
      • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
    • Climate Change Research:
      • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
    [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

    The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

    1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

    2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

    3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    IISc’s Bacteria-Based Technique for Lunar Habitat Construction

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Bacterial Brick

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.

    About the Bacterial Brick:

    • The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
    • It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
    • How is it made?
      • The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
      • The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
      • The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.

    Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:

    • The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
    • A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
      • When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
    • This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
      • It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
    [UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

    1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.

    2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.

    3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya

    Why in the News?

    Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

    Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

    Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:

    • The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
    • Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
    • The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
    • However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
    • This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
    • The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.

    About the Mahabodhi Temple:

    Details
    About
    • Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
    • The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
    • Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
    Architectural Features
    • Early example of brick architecture.
    • Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
    • Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
    • Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
    Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex
    • Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
    • Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
    • Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
    • Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
    • Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
    • Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
    • Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
    Historical Timeline
    • First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
    • Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
    • Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
    Key Features and Preservation
    • Built with brick and stucco.
    • Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
    • Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
    • Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

     

    [UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

    (a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe

    Why in the News?

    The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

    Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

    About Parker Solar Probe

    • The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
    • It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
    • The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
    • This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
      • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
    • The primary goals are:
      • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
      • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
      • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
      • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
    • The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
      • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
      • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
      • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
      • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
      • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

    Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

    • Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
    • Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
    • New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
    • Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
    • Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1.        GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2.        Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3.        Power grids could be damaged.

    4.        Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5.        Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6.        Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    7.        Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only

    (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only

    (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    Sarhul Festival Celebrations in Jharkhand

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Sarhul Festival

    Why in the News?

    On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.

    About Sarhul Festival

    • Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
    • It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
      • It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
    • It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
    • The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
    • The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
      • The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
    • It also marks the renewal of life.
    • After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.

    Cultural Significance of Sarhul

    • Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
    • Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
    • Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
    • Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

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  • Coal and Mining Sector

    India’s Coal Dependence rose to 79%

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Share of Coal in India's Energy Basket

    Why in the News?

    According to MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.

    Share of Coal in India’s Energy Basket:

    • Dominance: As of 2023-24, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
    • Production Growth: In 2023-24, India saw a 12% increase in coal production, continuing a strong growth trajectory from the 15% growth in 2022-23, marking one of the fastest growth rates in the past decade.
    • Dependence on Imports: Despite a surge in domestic production, India remains 26% dependent on coal imports, although this has decreased from 31% in 2019-20.

    India’s Total Energy Basket:

    • Coal: Discussed above.
    • Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power contributes approximately 1.7% to the total electricity generation capacity, with an installed capacity of about 8,180 MW as of late 2024.
    • Crude Oil: The share of crude oil has decreased from 11% in 2014-15 to 6% in 2023-24, indicating a long-term decline in its contribution to India’s energy mix.
    • Natural Gas: Similarly, natural gas’s share has decreased from 9% in 2014-15 to 7% in 2023-24, reflecting a shift away from natural gas in the energy mix.
    • Renewable Energy: Despite significant investments and efforts by the government, renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear) contribute only 7% to the total energy mix in 2023-24, showing slow but steady growth over the past decade.

    Shift Towards Renewable Energy:

    • Total Contribution: Renewable sources contributed 7% of India’s total energy production in 2023-24, a modest increase from 6% in 2014-15. While this share remains small, the absolute production from renewables has grown at a 6.76% CAGR over the past 10 years.
    • Growth in Solar and Wind Energy:
      • The generation from solar, wind, and other renewable sources (excluding large hydro) has surged by 210% over the last decade, increasing from 6,555 KToE in FY15 to 20,279 KToE in FY24.
    • Key Renewable Energy Potential:
      • Wind energy holds the largest share of India’s renewable potential at 55.17%, with an estimated potential of 11,63,856 MW.
      • Solar energy is the second-largest contributor at 35.50%, with a potential of 7,48,990 MW.
      • Large hydro contributes 6.32% of the renewable energy potential with 1,33,410 MW.
    • Future Targets:
      • India added 3.4 GW of new wind capacity in 2024, with Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), and Tamil Nadu (980 MW) leading the way.
      • India is aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, which would significantly boost the share of renewables in the energy mix, reducing the reliance on coal and crude oil over the coming years.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.

    2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.

    3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    What are the Norms for Disclosure of Judges’ Assets?

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Judges' Asset Disclosure

    Why in the News?

    The discovery of large sums of cash at Delhi High Court judges’ residence has raised concerns about corruption in India’s judiciary and reignited the debate over the public disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities.

    Current Stance on Judges’ Asset Disclosure

    • Supreme Court’s Historical Approach:
      • 1997 Resolution: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice J.S. Verma, resolved that judges should disclose their assets to the Chief Justice of India (CJI), but this did not involve public disclosure.
      • 2009 Resolution: The full Bench of the Supreme Court agreed to publish judges’ asset declarations on the court’s website, though this was done voluntarily. However, the website has not been updated since 2018, and the assets of current judges are not publicly available.
      • 2019 Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled that judges’ personal assets and liabilities are not private information, making them subject to the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
    • High Court’s Position:
      • As of March 2024, only 13% of High Court judges have publicly disclosed their assets and liabilities. Many High Courts, including Uttarakhand and Allahabad, have opposed public disclosure and argued that such information is outside the scope of the RTI Act.
    • Resistance to Full Disclosure:
      • The Uttarakhand High Court (2012) passed a resolution opposing the disclosure of judges’ assets under the RTI Act. Similarly, many High Courts have rejected RTI applications seeking information about judges’ assets.

    Parliament’s Role – Proposed Reforms

    • Committee Recommendation (2023):
      • The Parliamentary Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, and Law and Justice recommended that legislation be introduced to make the disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities mandatory for Supreme Court and High Court judges.
      • However, there has been no progress on implementing this recommendation as of now.
    • Need for Legislation:
      • Despite the RTI Act requiring public servants to disclose their assets, judges have largely remained exempt from such transparency.
      • Legislative action is seen as essential to ensure accountability and transparency within the judiciary, with several advocating for mandatory public disclosure similar to other public officials.
    [UPSC 2017] With reference to the appointment of the High Court Judges, consider the following statements:

    1. Chief Justice of India is consulted by the President in the appointment.

    2. Governor of the State is consulted by the Chief Justice of India in the appointment.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    [UPSC 2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service, including judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability and ethical conduct. Elaborate.

     

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  • Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

    Tribhuvandas Patel: the Father of Cooperative Movement

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Tribhuvandas Patel

    Why in the News?

    The Lok Sabha recently passed a Bill to establish Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, in honour of Tribhuvandas Kishibhai Patel, a visionary leader known as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly in dairy farming.

    Tribhuvandas Patel the Father of Cooperative Movement

    Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?

    • Patel was born in 1903 to Kishibhai Patel and Lakhiba in Anand, Gujarat. He was an alumnus of Gujarat Vidyapith and was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
    • A dedicated freedom fighter, Patel participated in the civil disobedience movement, campaigns against untouchability, and the salt satyagraha.
    • He was jailed in 1930 for his participation in the Salt Movement.
    • He is widely recognized as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly for his transformative work in the dairy industry.

    Patel’s Contribution to the Cooperative Movement

    • In 1946, Patel founded the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Limited (KDCMPUL), known later as Amul, to empower farmers and challenge the monopoly of the Polson Dairy in Anand, Gujarat.
    • Patel collaborated with Verghese Kurien, a mechanical engineer, to modernize the dairy plant and increase milk production. This collaboration eventually led to the White Revolution in India.
    • Patel was also instrumental in setting up the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), and the Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), which played a pivotal role in cooperative dairy farming and rural development.
    • After his retirement, Patel used funds from the cooperative community to establish the Tribhuvandas Foundation, focused on community health and welfare.

    Cooperative Movement in India:

    • Pre-Independence Era:
      • The cooperative movement originated from informal local initiatives like Chit Funds and Mutual-Loan Associations in places like Madras Presidency and Punjab.
      • The 1904 Cooperative Credit Societies Act formally recognized cooperatives.
      • The Government of India Act, 1919 empowered provinces to legislate on cooperatives, leading to the Bombay Cooperative Society Act of 1925.
    • Post-Independence Developments:
      • Cooperatives became central to India’s economic strategies, particularly for rural development and social justice.
      • The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) (1963) and NABARD (1982) supported rural cooperatives and provided credit to farmers.
      • The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) granted the right to form cooperatives under Article 19.
      • The Ministry of Cooperation was formed in 2021 to strengthen the cooperative framework.
      • The MSCS Amendment Act 2023 aims to improve governance and operational efficiency of cooperatives.

    Key Types of Cooperatives in India:

    1. Consumers’ Cooperatives: Provide affordable goods by removing intermediaries (e.g., Kendriya Bhandar).
    2. Producers’ Cooperatives: Support small producers by supplying essential materials.
    3. Cooperative Marketing Societies: Help producers market products collectively (e.g., Amul).

     

    [UPSC 2011] In India, which of the following have the highest share in the disbursement of credit to agriculture and allied activities?

    (a) Commercial Banks (b) Cooperative Banks (c) Regional Rural Banks (d) Microfinance Institutions

     

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  • Indian Army Updates

    [pib] Exercise INIOCHOS 25

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Exercise INIOCHOS 25

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Air Force will participate in Exercise INIOCHOS-25 hosted by the Hellenic Air Force at Andravida Air Base, Greece.

    About Exercise INIOCHOS

    • INIOCHOS is a biennial multinational air exercise that provides air forces with a platform to enhance their operational readiness.
    • It is hosted by the Hellenic (Greek) Air Force and brings together military aviation units from various countries, promoting international cooperation.
    • It was first conducted in the late 1980s, as a small-scale tactical level exercise.
    • Objective: To allow air forces to practice Combined Air Operations and share tactical knowledge through realistic combat scenarios.

    Key Features of Exercise INIOCHOS:

    • It integrates air and surface assets from fifteen countries, promoting multinational cooperation in air warfare.
    • It will simulate modern-day air warfare challenges, providing a real-world training environment for participating air forces.
    • It will be placed on planning and executing Combined Air operations, refining tactics in complex air warfare scenarios.

    Strategic Importance for India:

    • India’s participation in INIOCHOS-25 underlines its commitment to global defence cooperation and showcases its ability to work seamlessly in joint operations.
    • The exercise will reinforce India’s strategic partnerships with other nations and further enhance its readiness for joint operations in complex and dynamic air warfare environments.

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