Why in the News?
The defence minister has cleared the execution model for the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) project, where Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) must now compete with private companies for the production contract under a new industry partnership model.
About the AMCA Project:
- Overview: The Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is India’s fifth-generation stealth fighter being developed by ADA under DRDO.
- Approval: The project received Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) approval in March 2024, with a budget of ₹15,000 crore.
- Timeline: The first prototype is expected by 2028–29, production by 2032–33, and induction by 2034.
- Key Features:
- Stealth design, internal weapons bay, and diverterless supersonic intake.
- Payload: 1,500 kg internal and 5,500 kg external.
- Fuel: Internal capacity of 6,500 kg.
- Development Phases:
-
- AMCA Mk1 will use the GE F-414 engine.
- AMCA Mk2 will have a co-developed engine with France’s Safran.
- Strategic Importance: AMCA will help India counter threats from regional powers like China, which already deploy J-20 and J-35 fighters.
What are 5th Generation Fighter Aircrafts?
- Definition: Fifth-generation fighters are the most advanced combat aircraft in service today.
- Examples: Include the F-22 and F-35 (USA), Su-57 (Russia), and J-20 (China).
- Core Features:
- Stealth technology to avoid radar detection.
- Beyond-visual-range (BVR) combat capabilities.
- AI-based systems and automated battle management.
- Roles: These jets can perform air combat, surveillance, and ground attacks with precision and multi-role capability.
What does “Generation” mean in Fighter Aircrafts?
- Classification: Fighter jets are grouped by technological advances that can’t be added through upgrades.
- Evolution:
- 1st–3rd Gen: Basic jets with limited speed and weaponry.
- 4th Gen: Improved radar, manoeuvrability, and precision weapons (e.g., Rafale, Su-30MKI).
- 5th Gen: Introduces stealth, super-cruise, sensor fusion, and electronic warfare.
- Comparative Use: While not a perfect measure, “generation” helps compare air force capabilities across countries.
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| [UPSC 2025] With reference to India’s defence, consider the following pairs:
Aircraft type: Description
I. Dornier-228: Maritime patrol aircraft
II. IL-76: Supersonic combat aircraft
III. C-17 Globemaster III: Military transport aircraft
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
Sikkim’s CM has asked the Centre to ban climbing on Mt. Khangchendzonga, even from the Nepal side, as the mountain is sacred to the Sikkimese and seen as a guardian deity.
About Mt. Khangchendzonga:
- Location: Mt. Khangchendzonga is the third-highest mountain in the world at 8,586 metres, located on the India-Nepal border in the eastern Himalayas.
- Major Glaciers and Rivers: It is surrounded by Zemu, Talung, Yalung, and Kanchenjunga glaciers and bordered by rivers like Tamur, Lhonak, and Teesta.
- Etymology: Known as the “Five Treasuries of the Great Snow”, due to its five towering peaks, all above 8,000 metres.
- Geological Age: The mountain rocks are between 445 million to 1 billion years old, from the Neoproterozoic to Ordovician periods.
- Ecological Zone: Located within Khangchendzonga National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, rich in altitude diversity and rare species.
- Wildlife and Ecosystems: Home to snow leopards, red pandas, musk deer, and Asiatic black bears, along with over 220 glacial-fed water bodies.
- Hydrological Importance: It is the highest point in the Brahmaputra basin, contributing water to both the Ganges and Kosi River systems.
- Climate: Receives heavy monsoon snowfall and lighter winter snow.
Religious and Cultural Significance:
- Spiritual Status: The mountain is sacred in Sikkim and Nepal, embedded in local mythology and Buddhist traditions.
- Symbolism of the Name: The “5 Treasuries” are believed to hold salt, gold, turquoise, sacred texts, grain, medicine, and other treasures.
- Guardian Deity: It is considered the home of Dzoe-Nga, the chief protector deity of Sikkim, known as Pho-lha.
- Mythological Roots: Local guardian deities were blessed by Guru Padmasambhava, the patron saint of Sikkim.
- Climbing Ban: The Sikkim government banned climbing on the mountain in 1998 and 2001 under the Sacred Places of Worship Act, 1991, to preserve its sanctity.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
Peak: Mountains
1. Namcha Barwa — Garhwal Himalaya
2. Nanda Devi — Kumaon Himalaya
3. Nokrek — Sikkim Himalaya
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
Scientists at Stanford University discovered that TR1 cells play a dominant role in fighting malaria reinfections.
Understanding the Body’s Immune Response:
- What is the Immune System? It’s the body’s defence system that protects us from infections like malaria.
- First Defence: The skin and body surfaces block germs from entering.
- Innate Immunity: If germs get in, the innate immune system reacts fast, like an emergency response team.
- Adaptive Immunity: Then, the adaptive immune system kicks in, targeting germs specifically and remembering them for future protection.
- B-Cells and T-Cells:
- B-cells make antibodies to fight germs.
- T-cells attack infected cells and guide other immune cells.
- Helper T-Cells: A type called CD4+ T-cells helps organise the defence. Earlier, scientists thought TH1 cells were key in malaria, but a new study shows TR1 cells are more important, especially in repeat infections.
What are TR1 Cells?
- Role of TR1 Cells: These are special T-cells that help control the immune system and prevent overreaction.
- Major Response in Malaria: Though small in number, during malaria, TR1 cells become the main helper cells.
- Study in Uganda: In young children with repeated malaria, TR1 cells grew in number and improved the body’s ability to fight malaria without severe illness.
- Memory and Immunity: TR1 cells remember the malaria parasite and return stronger with each infection.
- Types of TR1 Cells:
- Naïve TR1 – not yet active.
- Effector TR1 – fighting infection.
- Memory TR1 – remembering past infections.
- Epigenetic Role: TR1 cells may respond by switching genes on or off, not by changing the genes themselves.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Research Team: Scientists from Stanford University studied people in Uganda over many months and years.
- Tracking Infections: They followed individuals through multiple malaria infections to see how immune cells behaved.
- Gene Scanning: A special technique was used to read the genes of each immune cell — like scanning a barcode.
- Findings: TR1 cells were accurate, long-lasting, and clearly connected to malaria (not other infections).
- Why it matters: This discovery can help in making better malaria vaccines, boosting long-term protection, and even improving treatments for other serious diseases.
| [UPSC 2025] With reference to monoclonal antibodies, consider the following:
I. They are man-made proteins. II. They stimulate the patient’s immune system to fight the specific disease. III. They are produced using animal cells only.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) All the three * |
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Why in the News?
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs chaired by Prime Minister has approved the increase in the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for 14 kharif crops for 2025-26.
What is the Minimum Support Price (MSP)?
- MSP in India originated in response to food shortages in the 1960s, notably during the Bihar famine of 1966–1967.
- Agricultural Price Commission (APC) was established in 1965 to implement price policies like procurement at pre-decided prices and MSP.
- Over time, the APC evolved into the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) in 1985, with broader terms of reference.
- Announcement: The government bases its announcement on the recommendations given by the Commission for Agricultural Costs & Prices (CACP).
Steps involved in Fixing MSPs:
- CACP sends its recommendations to the Government of India.
- The reports are shared with state governments and concerned central ministries for comments.
- After reviewing all inputs, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) takes the final decision on MSPs.
- Once approved, CACP publishes all its reports online, ensuring transparency and explaining the rationale behind its recommendations.
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How is MSP fixed?
- Formulae for Calculation:
- A2: Costs incurred by the farmer in production of a particular crop. It includes several inputs such as expenditure on seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, leased-in land, hired labour, machinery and fuel
- A2+FL: Costs incurred by the farmer and the value of family labour
- C2: A comprehensive cost, which is A2+FL cost plus imputed rental value of owned land plus interest on fixed capital, rent paid for leased-in land
- National Commission of Farmers also known as the Swaminathan Commission (2004) recommended that the MSP should at least be 50 per cent more than the weighted average Cost of Production (CoP), which it refers to as the C2 cost.
- The government maintains that the MSP was fixed at a level of at least 1.5 times of the all-India weighted average CoP, but it calculates this cost as 1.5 times of A2+FL.
- Crops covered are: CACP currently recommends MSPs for 23 key crops:
-
- 7 Cereals: Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), Barley, and Ragi
- 5 Pulses: Gram (Chana), Tur (Arhar), Moong, Urad, and Lentil (Masur)
- 7 Oilseeds: Groundnut, Rapeseed-Mustard, Soybean, Sesame, Sunflower, Safflower, and Nigerseed
- 4 Commercial Crops: Copra, Cotton, Raw Jute and Sugarcane (Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) is announced by CACP.)
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. In the case of all cereals, pulses and oil-seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
2. In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court Collegium has recommended the transfer of 4 Chief Justices from the High Courts of Madras, Rajasthan, Tripura, and Jharkhand.
About the Collegium System:
- Definition: It is used in India for the appointment and transfer of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- Non-Constitutional Origin: It is not mentioned in the Constitution or any law passed by Parliament. It developed through Supreme Court judgments to protect judicial independence.
- Judicial Primacy: The system ensures that senior judges, not the government, have the main say in judicial appointments.
- Evolution: It arose in response to executive interference during the 1970s, when the government tried to influence and supersede senior judges:
- First Judges Case (1981) – S.P. Gupta v. Union of India:
- Held that the Chief Justice’s opinion was only consultative.
- Gave the executive primary control over appointments and transfers.
- Second Judges Case (1993) – Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India:
- Overruled the First Judges Case.
- Declared that “consultation” with the CJI means “concurrence”, making the CJI’s view binding.
- Introduced the Collegium system, involving the CJI and two senior-most judges.
- Affirmed that judicial independence requires judicial primacy in appointments.
- Third Judges Case (1998) – Re: Presidential Reference:
- Expanded the Collegium to include the CJI and four senior-most Supreme Court judges.
- Emphasised institutional decision-making, not personal preferences of individual judges.
How does the Collegium System works?
- For Supreme Court Judges:
- The Collegium includes the CJI and four senior-most SC judges.
- It recommends names for appointments to the SC and appointments/transfers of High Court judges and Chief Justices.
- The Law Ministry processes these names and sends them to the Prime Minister, who advises the President for final approval.
- For Appointing the Chief Justice of India:
- The sitting CJI recommends the senior-most SC judge.
- This practice has been followed since the 1970s supersession controversy.
- For High Court Judges:
- Recommendations start from the Chief Justice of the High Court, who consults two senior colleagues.
- The proposal goes to the state government, then to the Supreme Court Collegium (CJI and two senior-most SC judges), and finally to the President.
- For Transfers of Judges:
- Article 222 of the Constitution allows transfer of High Court judges.
- The Collegium recommends transfers, often for administrative needs or public interest.
- Consent is not needed, but the CJI must consult the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court and other senior judges.
- No High Court can have an Acting Chief Justice for more than a month, so transfers and new appointments are usually done together.
Tap to know more about the Appointment and Removal of HC Judges.
| [UPSC 2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?
1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India. 2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only. 3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote. 4. All appointments of officers and staff of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only * (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
New Delhi recently faced a severe thunderstorm with winds up to 100 kmph, forming a bow echo — a crescent-shaped pattern seen on weather radar.
About Bow Echo:
- What is it: A bow echo is a storm pattern on radar that looks like a curved bow, similar to an archer’s bow.
- Storm Type: It forms inside a mesoscale convective system (MCS) — a large group of organised thunderstorms.
- Origin of Term: The term was first used by Ted Fujita, who also created the Fujita scale for tornadoes.
- How It Forms:
- Heavy rain causes cool air to sink and spread out near the ground.
- This cool air forms a gust front, which pushes warm, moist air upward, creating new storms.
- A rear inflow jet — strong mid-level winds — pushes the storm forward, bending it into a bow shape.
- Bookend vortices may form at both ends of the bow, and the northern end can sometimes generate tornadoes.
Size, Impact, and Dangers:
- Size and Duration: Bow echoes usually span 20 to 200 km and last 3 to 6 hours.
- Wind Strength: They often produce straight-line winds over 100 km/h, like those seen in Delhi’s recent storm.
- Derechos: In severe cases, bow echoes can grow into derechos, which are long-lasting and widespread windstorms.
- Impacts:
- Damaging Winds: Knock down trees, power lines, and damage buildings.
- Brief Tornadoes: May form at the storm’s edges, especially at the northern end.
- Microbursts and Downbursts: Intense short-lived wind blasts within the storm that cause local destruction.
| [UPSC 2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the-
1. Meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky 2. Lightning that separates the nimbus clouds 3. Violent upward movement of air and water particles.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of the above produces the thunder* |
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Why in the News?
Mumbai got heavy monsoon rains two weeks early because of a strong Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) — a weather pattern that boosts rainfall in the region.
About the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO):
- Definition: The MJO is a moving weather system of clouds, wind, rain, and pressure that travels eastward around the tropics.
- Cycle Time: It takes 30 to 60 days to complete a full loop around the globe.
- Discovery: It was discovered in the 1970s by Roland Madden and Paul Julian.
- Two Phases:
-
- The enhanced convective phase brings heavy rain, storms, and clouds.
- The suppressed convective phase brings dry, clear weather.
- Global Pattern: These phases move together — when one area gets rain, another gets dry weather.
- MJO vs ENSO: Unlike El Niño, which lasts for months, the MJO changes every few weeks and affects short-term weather patterns.
- Wider Impact: It influences monsoons, cyclones, jet streams, and weather in both tropical and non-tropical regions.
- Phases: Scientists divide its movement into 8 phases, each showing where rain or dry weather will occur.
MJO and the Early Monsoon of 2025:
- Early Monsoon Trigger: The early arrival of the monsoon in May 2025 was largely due to a very active MJO.
- IMD Observation: The India Meteorological Department noted that the MJO was in Phase 4 with high amplitude, which strongly affects Indian rainfall.
- Rapid Monsoon Progress: It helped push extra moisture and clouds from the Indian Ocean, making the monsoon move from Kerala to Maharashtra in just two days.
- Other Contributing Factors:
- A strong cross-equatorial flow brought warm, moist air from the south.
- A low-pressure system in the Arabian Sea brought pre-monsoon rains to Mumbai.
- Record Rainfall: This resulted in Mumbai’s wettest May in over 100 years.
- Why It Matters: The event showed how a tropical system like the MJO can suddenly change monsoon timing and rainfall patterns in India.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
To boost India’s export strength, the government has restored Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) Scheme benefits for eligible exports starting June 1, 2025.
Details of the Latest Update:
- RoDTEP benefits have now been restored for Advance Authorization (AA) holders, Export-Oriented Units (EOUs), and Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
- These categories were previously excluded from February 5, 2025, but are now eligible again from June 1, 2025.
- The move ensures a level playing field for all exporters and encourages broad-based export growth.
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About the RoDTEP Scheme:
- Launch: It started on January 1, 2021, as part of the Foreign Trade Policy 2015–20.
- Objective: It helps exporters get refunds for hidden taxes and duties that are not refunded under other schemes.
- Examples of Hidden Taxes: These include taxes like electricity duty, mandi tax, and fuel charges during transport.
- Why it was introduced: RoDTEP replaced the earlier Merchandise Export Incentive Schemes (MIES) after India lost a case at the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
- Global Compliance: The scheme is WTO-compliant, following the rule that exported goods should not carry domestic taxes.
- Administered by: It is managed by the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance.
Eligibility under RoDTEP:
- Who can apply: All Indian exporters — whether manufacturers or merchant exporters — are eligible.
- Eligible exports: Exports from SEZs, EOUs, and e-commerce platforms are also covered.
- Not Eligible: Re-exported goods are not eligible for benefits.
- Sector Focus: The scheme gives priority to labour-intensive sectors that earlier benefitted from MEIS.
How the refund works:
- Rebate Calculation: The refund is given as a percentage of the export value (Free on Board value).
- Mode of Refund: The benefit comes in the form of e-scrips, which are stored in a digital ledger by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC).
- Usage of E-Scrips: These e-scrips can be used to pay basic customs duty or be transferred to other importers.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. India’s merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports.
2. India’s imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers and machinery have decreased in recent years.
3. India’s exports of services are more than its imports of services.
4. India suffers from an overall trade/current account deficit.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only* |
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Why in the News?
The Kumbakonam Vetrilai (betel leaf or paan leaf) has received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag from the Government of India.
About Kumbakonam Vetrilai
- Cultivation: It is grown in the Thanjavur region, especially in Kumbakonam, Thiruvaiyaru, Papanasam, Thiruvidaimarudur, and Rajagiri.
- Characteristics: The leaf is heart-shaped, dark to light green, with a strong aroma and pungent taste, thanks to the fertile Cauvery basin soil.
- Cultural Importance: It is a main ingredient in paan, a popular post-meal chew in South Asia.
- Harvest: The first-year yield, called maaruvethalai, produces the largest and longest-lasting leaves (6–7 days shelf life); Farmers hand-pick leaves, working from early morning until late night due to the labour-heavy process.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI) Tag
- A GI is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that origin.
- Nodal Agency: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
- India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 w.e.f. September 2003.
- GIs have been defined under Article 22 (1) of the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
- The tag stands valid for 10 years and can be renewed.
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| [UPSC 2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?
(1) Banaras Brocades and Sarees (2) Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma (3) Tirupathi Laddu
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
May 28 is celebrated every year as World Dugong Day.
About Dugongs:
- Species Info: Dugong dugon, also known as sea cows, are herbivorous marine mammals closely related to manatees but live only in saltwater.
- Habitat: They live in shallow coastal waters and are mainly found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and Gulf of Kutch.
- Diet and Role: Dugongs feed on seagrass species like Cymodocea, Halophila, Thalassia, and Halodule. As they graze, they stir up the seabed, earning the nickname “farmers of the sea.”
- Lifespan and Behaviour: They can live up to 70 years and are usually solitary or seen in mother-calf pairs.
- Reproduction: Females mature at 9–10 years and give birth every 3–5 years, resulting in a slow population growth of about 5% per year.
- Conservation Concern: India’s dugong population has dropped to an estimated 200 individuals, with shrinking range and numbers.
Conservation Efforts in India:
- IUCN Status: Dugongs are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ globally and ‘Regionally Endangered’ in India.
- Legal Protection: They are protected under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
- Global Agreements: India joined the Convention on Migratory Species in 1983 and signed the Dugong Conservation MoU in 2008.
- Dugong Reserve: In 2022, India established its first Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu, covering 448.3 sq. km.
| [UPSC 2015] With reference to ‘dugong’ a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal. 2. It is found along the entire coast of India. 3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 * (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
In 2024, a soundtrack was released inspired by the Laschamps event, a magnetic flip-flop that occurred 41,000 years ago when Earth’s magnetic field weakened to just 5% and the poles briefly reversed.
What is Magnetic Flip-Flop?
- Definition: A magnetic flip-flop is when Earth’s magnetic poles reverse, with the north and south poles switching places.
- Magnetic Field Source: Earth’s magnetic field is generated by the movement of molten iron in the outer core, acting like a giant magnet.
- Reversal Types:
- A long-term change is called a geomagnetic reversal.
- A short-lived, temporary switch is a geomagnetic excursion.
- Field Behavior: During a reversal, the magnetic field weakens significantly and the direction of field lines flips.
- Occurrence: These events are irregular and unpredictable.
Recent Magnetic Reversals and Excursions:
- Last Major Reversal: The Brunhes–Matuyama reversal occurred about 780,000 years ago.
- Known Excursions:
- Norwegian-Greenland Sea event (~64,500 years ago)
- Laschamps excursion (~41,000 years ago), when field strength dropped to 5% of today’s level
- Mono Lake excursion (~34,500 years ago)
- Indian Evidence: Excursions found in Uttarakhand (Bagwalipokar), dated to 15,500–14,700 years and 8,000–2,850 years ago.
- Pole Movement: Since 1831, the north magnetic pole has shifted 1,100 km toward Siberia and now moves at 35 km/year, while the south pole is more stable.
Implications of Magnetic Flip-Flop:
- Radiation Exposure: A weaker magnetic field during flip-flop allows more cosmic radiation, affecting:
- Satellites and astronauts
- Navigation and communication systems
- Power grids and electronics
- Protective Shield: Earth’s atmosphere still protects against harmful radiation even when the magnetic field is weak.
- Climate & Ozone Effects: Events like Laschamps may have altered the ozone layer and climate, but no confirmed link to mass extinctions.
- South Atlantic Anomaly: A current weak-field region affecting spacecraft over South America and South Africa.
- Monitoring Tools: Scientists use satellites, ice cores, volcanic rocks, and geomagnetic observatories to track field changes.
- Global Guidance: The World Magnetic Model, updated every 5 years, supports navigation systems worldwide.
- Prediction Outlook: Though timing of future reversals is uncertain, computer models and cosmic data are improving forecasts.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.
2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.
3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Scientists have discovered a new sea creature from the Cambrian period named Mosura fentoni, found in Canada’s Burgess Shale, one of the most important fossil sites in the world.
About Mosura fentoni:
- Discovery Site: Mosura fentoni was discovered in Canada’s Burgess Shale, a well-known Cambrian fossil site.
- Biological Group: It belongs to radiodonts, an extinct group of marine predators related to insects, crabs, and spiders.
- Size and Structure: The creature is very small (1.5 to 6 cm) but has a long, complex body made of 26 segments.
- Body Zones:
- The neck supports the head.
- The mesotrunk has six paddle-shaped flaps for swimming, like mini propellers.
- The posterotrunk has up to 16 segments with rows of thin gills and small flaps.
- Breathing Adaptation: The gills in the posterotrunk likely acted as a breathing zone, similar to the tails of horseshoe crabs that help collect oxygen.
Evolutionary Importance:
- Arthropod Evolution: The find helps explain how early arthropods (like modern insects and crustaceans) evolved diverse forms.
- Advanced Abilities: Despite its small size, M. fentoni had specialised swimming and breathing systems.
- Evolutionary Position: It is placed near the base of the hurdiid family in the radiodont family tree.
- Segment Specialisation: Its body shows early examples of segment division for specific tasks — a trait common in modern arthropods.
- Key Insight: The discovery suggests that complex body planning in arthropods began much earlier than previously thought.
Back2Basics: Cambrian Period:
- The Cambrian Period is a division of the geologic time scale that lasted from approximately 541 million to 485 million years ago.
- It is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and follows the Precambrian Eon.
- It is significant because it marks a time when most major animal groups first appeared in the fossil record.
- This period is characterized by the development of complex, multicellular life, especially in marine environments.
- The Cambrian Explosion refers to a relatively short evolutionary event—occurring around 541 million years ago—during which a vast number of new animal species and body plans rapidly emerged.
- Within about 20 to 25 million years, nearly all major animal phyla (like arthropods, mollusks, and chordates) appeared.
- This explosion of biodiversity is seen as one of the most important evolutionary events in Earth’s history.
|
| [UPSC 2019] The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to-
Options: (a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs (b) an early human species* (c) a cave system found in North-East India. (d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent |
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Why in the News?
The Election Commission of India has announced biennial elections for eight Rajya Sabha seats, including two seats from Assam and six seats from Tamil Nadu.
These elections are part of the regular process through which
About Elections to the Rajya Sabha:
- Rajya Sabha members are indirectly elected by the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies and Union Territory electoral colleges (Delhi and Puducherry).
- The elections follow the proportional representation system through the Single Transferable Vote (STV) method.
- Voting is done using an Open Ballot to ensure transparency and party discipline.
- Composition of the Rajya Sabha:
- It can have a maximum of 250 members.
- Out of these, 238 members are elected, and 12 are nominated by the President of India for contributions to art, literature, science, and social service.
- As of now, the RS has 245 members — 233 elected and 12 nominated.
- One-third of RS members retire every two years.
- Voting Requirements and Process:
- A candidate must be proposed by at least 10 members of the State Legislative Assembly or 10% of the party’s strength in the Assembly.
- Voters rank candidates by preference under the Single Transferable Vote system.
- If a candidate is eliminated or elected, their votes are transferred to the next preference on the ballot.
- Voting is done using an Open Ballot system to promote transparency.
- Quota for Election:
- To win, a candidate must secure a vote quota, calculated as:
(Total valid votes / (Number of vacancies + 1)) + 1.
- Tenure of Members:
- RS is a permanent body and cannot be dissolved.
- However, one-third of its members retire every two years, and new members are elected.
- Each Rajya Sabha member serves a six-year term.
- Chairmanship and Leadership:
- The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
- A Deputy Chairman is elected by the Rajya Sabha members from among themselves.
- Eligibility (as per Article 84):
- A candidate must be a citizen of India.
- The minimum age required is 30 years.
- The candidate must also meet other qualifications specified by the Constitution or law.
- Disqualification of Members:
- A member can be disqualified for defection under the anti-defection law.
- Disqualification can also happen due to criminal convictions, bankruptcy, or being declared of unsound mind.
- Administrative and Historical Details:
- The first sitting of the Rajya Sabha was held on May 13, 1952.
- The Secretary General of the Rajya Sabha acts as the chief executive and administrative head of the Rajya Sabha Secretariat.
Tap here to read everything about the Rajya Sabha.
| [UPSC 2020] Rajya Sabha has equal powers with Lok Sabha in:
Options: (a) the matter of creating new All India Services (b) amending the Constitution* (c) the removal of the government (d) making cut motion |
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Why in the News?
Researchers have solved the genetic mysteries behind Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance, using advanced DNA sequencing and genome analysis.
About Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance:
- Who Was Mendel: Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who studied pea plants starting in 1856 to find out how traits like height or color are passed from parents to children.
- Years of Study: He worked for 8 years and tested over 10,000 plants. His results were shared in 1865 but ignored at the time.
- Rediscovered Later: In 1900, other scientists realised how important Mendel’s work was.
- What He Studied: He looked at 7 traits in peas – Seed shape, seed colour, flower colour, pod shape, pod colour, flower position, and plant height.
- What He Found: Some traits (like round seeds) are stronger than others (like wrinkled seeds). These stronger traits usually show up in the next generation.
- Why It Matters: Mendel showed that traits are passed through tiny units called genes, and each gene can have different versions called alleles. This became the foundation of genetics.
What the Study Found (2024):
- What Scientists Did: In April 2024, scientists studied the DNA of 697 types of pea plants to understand the exact genes behind all 7 traits that Mendel studied.
- Big Data: They used powerful machines to look at a huge amount of data — as much as 14 billion pages of information!
- Surprising Results: They found that the pea plant family is more mixed than expected, with 8 different genetic groups due to crossbreeding.
- New Genetic Details:
- Pod color changes due to a missing piece of DNA.
- Pod shape is controlled by 2 specific genes.
- Flower position changes with a small DNA change.
- More Than Mendel: They also found 72 other traits related to seeds, pods, leaves, and roots.
- Why It’s Useful: These findings can help farmers grow better crops, protect plants from diseases, and prepare for climate change.
| [UPSC 2013] Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables the plants to
(1). resist drought and increase absorptive area (2). tolerate extremes of pH (3). resist disease infestation
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 * |
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Why in the News?
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has unveiled the Bharat Forecast System (BFS) for weather predictions at panchayat level.
About Bharat Forecast System (BFS)
- Launch: The BFS was launched by IMD and developed by IITM Pune under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- Forecast Accuracy: It delivers hyperlocal weather predictions at the panchayat level, using a 6 km × 6 km grid — the highest resolution in the world.
- Supercomputing Power: The system runs on two advanced supercomputers: Arka at IITM Pune and Arunika at NCMRWF Delhi.
- Purpose: BFS enhances short- and medium-term forecasts critical for agriculture, disaster preparedness, and public safety.
Key Features of BFS:
- High-Resolution Forecasting: It provides 6 km resolution forecasts, improving on the earlier 12 km resolution. It covers the tropical region between 30° South and 30° North latitude.
- Advanced Supercomputing: Arka- 11.77 petaflops, 33 petabytes; Arunika- 8.24 petaflops, 24 petabytes; Arka reduces forecast processing time from 10 hours to 4 hours; Includes a dedicated AI system with 1.9 petaflops power.
- Real-Time Nowcasting: Uses data from 40 Doppler Weather Radars (set to grow to 100); Provides real-time forecasts for the next 2 hours with high accuracy.
- Smart Grid Design: Uses a Triangular-Cubic Octahedral (TCO) grid, focusing computing power on weather-sensitive regions.
- Practical Benefits: Helps forecast heavy rainfall, improve crop planning, manage flood risk, and guide resource allocation.
- Global Benchmark: Most global models operate at 9–14 km resolution; India is now the only country with 6 km operational weather forecasts.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) released the first-ever State of the World’s Animal Health report.
Key Highlights of the Report:
- India faces high risk from transboundary animal diseases, with 47% of global outbreaks between 2005–2023 being zoonotic, affecting both animals and humans.
- African Swine Fever (ASF), which jumped 1,800 km to Sri Lanka in 2024, threatens India’s northeast pig-rearing regions already impacted in past years.
- Avian Influenza (HPAI) saw outbreaks in non-poultry species surpass poultry in 2024; India’s dense poultry population makes cross-species transmission a growing concern.
- Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), endemic in India, showed new serotype SAT 3 and SAT 1 activity in other countries, posing vaccine adaptation challenges.
- Diseases like Lumpy Skin Disease and PPR, both reported in India earlier, are now spreading to new global regions, highlighting potential for reintroduction.
- WOAH urges global action on vaccine equity, surveillance, and biosecurity, which align with India’s need to safeguard livelihoods, trade, and food security.
About the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH):
- Establishment: WOAH, formerly known as OIE, was founded in 1924 and is headquartered in Paris, France.
- Membership: It has 183 member countries, including India, and operates independently from the United Nations.
- Mandate: WOAH is the global authority on animal health, working to control animal epidemics (epizootics) and improve global animal welfare.
- Key Functions:
- Runs the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) to track disease outbreaks.
- Sets international health standards for trade in animals and animal products.
- Promotes science-based animal welfare policies and transparent disease reporting.
- Offers technical support to countries, especially developing nations.
- Global Cooperation: Works with over 70 global partners, including the FAO.
- India’s Role: India is a member and an active participant through the World Assembly of Delegates.
| [UPSC 2005] Which one of the following diseases of milching animals are infectious?
1. Foot and Mouth disease
2. Anthrax
3. Black Quarter
4. Cowpox
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is considering a proposal to ease restrictions on short selling in most stocks.
SEBI’s January 2024 proposal to bar short-selling in stocks that are not in the futures and options segment had caused uncertainty.
What is Short Selling?
- Definition: Short selling is a strategy where an investor sells a stock first and buys it later, aiming to profit from a price drop.
- Opposite of Normal Trade: Unlike regular buying (buy low, sell high), short selling works on selling high and buying low.
- How It Works: You borrow the stock from a broker, sell it at the market price, and later buy it back at a lower price to return it.
- Example: If a stock is sold at ₹2,100 and later bought at ₹1,900, the profit is ₹200. If the price rises to ₹2,300 instead, the loss is ₹200.
Types of Short Selling:
- Short Selling in the Spot Market (Cash Segment):
- Shorting is allowed only for intraday trading (buying and selling financial instruments (like stocks) on the same day).
- You must square off the position (buy back the stock) before 3:30 p.m. on the same day.
- If not squared off, it leads to short delivery, where the exchange settles the trade through an auction.
- There may be heavy penalties if the position is not closed on time.
- Short Selling in the Futures Market:
- Here, you can hold your short position overnight or even roll it over to the next month.
- You must deposit margin money, which is generally higher.
- Futures shorting is riskier and is mostly used by experienced traders.
- This type allows more flexibility but involves greater financial commitment.
Risks Associated with Short Selling:
- Unlimited Losses: If the stock price rises sharply, losses are unlimited.
- Short Delivery Risk: Failing to buy back in the spot market can lead to penalties.
- Liquidity Risk: Hard-to-trade stocks may lead to delayed buybacks and losses.
- Margin Requirements: High margin costs in futures trading limit retail participation.
- Market Volatility: Sudden movements may cause unexpected losses.
- Not for Beginners: Due to complexity and high risk, short selling is unsuitable for new investors.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: As regards returns from an investment in a company, generally, bondholders are considered to be relatively at lower risk than stockholders.
Statement II: Bondholders are lenders to a company whereas stockholders are its owners.
Statement III: For repayment purpose, bondholders are prioritized over stockholders by a company.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement I explains Statement II
(c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I
(d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct |
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Why in the News?
The Department of Pharmaceuticals has invited drug manufacturers to apply for benefits under the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme.
It has invited fresh applications for 11 unsubscribed or partially subscribed pharmaceutical products, including Neomycin, Gentamycin, Erythromycin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Ciprofloxacin, and Diclofenac Sodium, to boost domestic production capacity.
About the PLI Scheme:
- Launch: The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme was launched in March 2020.
- Objectives: Aimed to boost domestic manufacturing, reduce import dependency, and create employment.
- Initial Focus: Targeted three sectors — mobile manufacturing, electronic components, and medical devices.
- Expansion: Later extended to 14 key sectors, including pharmaceuticals, textiles, IT hardware, automobiles, and electronics.
- Incentive Structure: Offered 1%–4% incentives on incremental sales.
- Impact: Attracted large-scale investments and enhanced global competitiveness of Indian industries.
PLI Scheme for Pharmaceuticals:
- Target Area: Designed to promote bulk drug and formulation manufacturing in India.
- Product Focus: Encouraged domestic production of Key Starting Materials (KSMs), Drug Intermediates (DIs), and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs).
- Strategic Aim: Aimed to reduce import dependence, particularly on China.
- Financial Allocation: Total outlay for the pharmaceutical PLI scheme is ₹6,940 crore.
Tap to read more about various versions of Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: India accounts for 3.2% of global exports of goods.
Statement-II: Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India’s ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct |
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Why in the News?
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has developed the ICMR-SCD Stigma Scale for India (ISSSI) to help understand and reduce stigma faced by patients and caregivers from sickle cell disease (SCD).
What is Sickle Cell Disease (SCD)?
- Nature of Disease: SCD is a genetic disorder where red blood cells become sickle-shaped, reducing oxygen delivery in the body.
- Complications: These sickle cells can block blood vessels, break easily, and cause anemia, organ damage, and painful episodes.
- Cause: The disease is inherited, requiring one defective gene from each parent; one gene leads to sickle cell trait.
- Symptoms: Common symptoms include fatigue, body pain, swollen limbs, frequent infections, and organ damage.
- Treatment Options: There is no universal cure, but bone marrow transplants and gene therapy offer potential solutions; supportive care helps manage symptoms.
Note:
- Anaemia is a condition where the blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells (RBCs) or haemoglobin.
- All SCD patients have anaemia, but not all anaemia is due to Sickle Cell Disease.
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About the ICMR-SCD Stigma Scale for India (ISSSI):
- Purpose: The ISSSI is India’s first tool designed to measure stigma faced by sickle cell disease (SCD) patients and their caregivers.
- Developing Authority: It was developed by ICMR to understand and address the social impact of SCD in India’s diverse communities.
- Global Context: This is the fourth stigma scale worldwide and the first validated for Indian conditions.
- Scientific Validation: The tool was validated in a study published in The Lancet (Regional Health – South-East Asia).
- Availability: The ISSSI is now approved for use in both clinical and research settings across India.
- Components: It includes two formats — ISSSI-Pt for patients and ISSSI-Cg for caregivers.
- Stigma Dimensions: It captures issues related to family expectations, reproductive concerns, social disclosure, illness burden, interpersonal challenges, and negative healthcare experiences.
- Data Sources: The scale was developed using inputs from 6 culturally diverse districts: Alluri Seetharama Raju, Anuppur, Chhoteudepur, Kandhamal, Mysuru, and Udalguri.
India’s Strategy: Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB)
- Launch Year: The AMB Mission was launched in 2018 to reduce anemia using a 6x6x6 strategy.
- Target Groups: It covers six groups — young children, school children, adolescents, women of reproductive age, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
- Key Interventions: Actions include iron and folic acid supplements, deworming, nutrition education, digital health tools, IFA-fortified foods, and disease screening (including SCD).
- Supporting Systems: It is backed by inter-ministerial coordination, state-level units, research centers, the AMB Dashboard, digital tracking, and supply chain support.
- Reach: The mission aims to impact around 450 million people, focusing on real-time monitoring and last-mile delivery.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements in the context of interventions being undertaken under Anaemia Mukt Bharat Strategy:
1. It provides prophylactic calcium supplementation for pre-school children, adolescents and pregnant women. 2. It runs a campaign for delayed cord clamping at the time of child-birth. 3. It provides for periodic deworming to children and adolescents. 4. It addresses non-nutritinoal causes of anaemia in endemic pockets with special focus on malaria, hemoglobinopathies and fluorosis.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
China is set to launch its first asteroid sampling mission, called Tianwen-2, to study and collect samples from the near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamo‘oalewa.
If successful, China will join a small group of countries — including the United States and Japan — that have returned asteroid samples to Earth.
What is the Kamo‘oalewa Asteroid?
- Kamo‘oalewa was discovered in 2016 using the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope in Hawaii.
- It is a quasi-satellite of Earth, which means it orbits the Sun but stays close to Earth and is affected by Earth’s gravity.
- It has a highly elliptical orbit and seems to move ahead of and behind Earth, giving the illusion of orbiting Earth.
- Kamo‘oalewa has been in this orbit for around 100 years and is expected to remain in it for the next 300 years.
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About the Tianwen-2 Mission:
- Mission Type: Tianwen-2 is China’s first asteroid sample return mission.
- Target: It will explore 469219 Kamo‘oalewa, a near-Earth quasi-satellite asteroid.
- Asteroid Origin: Kamo ‘oalewa may contain lunar fragments ejected during a past collision.
- Sample Collection:
- Touch-and-Go Technique: Uses a projectile or gas to loosen and collect surface material.
- Anchor-and-Attach Technique: Uses robotic arms to anchor and drill for deeper samples.
- Post-Sample Phase: After sample return, the probe will travel to the main asteroid belt for further exploration.
- Key Technologies: Equipped with high-resolution cameras, intelligent onboard systems, and precise control to operate in low-gravity conditions.
Tianwen-1 Mission:
- Mission Type: Tianwen-1 was China’s first Mars mission, launched in July 2020.
- Launch Vehicle: It was launched aboard a Long March 5 rocket.
- Mission Structure: Consisted of an orbiter, lander, and rover — all in one launch.
- Landing Site: Successfully landed in Utopia Planitia, a northern Martian plain.
- Scientific Goals:
- Studied Martian soil, rocks, and geological structure.
- Analyzed climate, atmosphere, and subsurface water or ice.
- Unique Feature: Deployed the first ground-penetrating radar on the Martian surface.
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| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:
Spacecraft Purpose
1. Cassini-Huygens : Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth.
2. Messenger : Mapping and investigating.
3. Voyager 1 and 2 : Exploring the outer solar system.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only |
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