The Union Transport Minister has announced that the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) is studying the feasibility of blending Isobutanol with Diesel after ethanol–diesel blending attempts failed.
About Isobutanol:
What is it: A four-carbon alcohol (C₄H₁₀O), clear, flammable, and traditionally used as a solvent in paints, coatings, and chemical industries.
Production: Derived either from petrochemical processes or by fermenting sugarcane, molasses, and grains with engineered microbes.
Fuel Properties:
Higher energy density than ethanol, closer to diesel.
Lower hygroscopicity (absorbs less water), reducing rust and corrosion in engines and pipelines.
Higher flash point than ethanol, making it safer for storage and transport.
Isobutanol–Diesel Blending and Benefits:
Compatibility: Unlike ethanol, isobutanol blends well with diesel without extra chemicals.
Economic Feasibility: Can be produced in existing ethanol plants with minor changes.
Agricultural Support: Creates demand for sugarcane by-products, helping farmers and managing sugar surplus.
Energy Security: Reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels and saves foreign exchange.
Global First: Pilot studies may make India the first country to use isobutanol–diesel blends.
Challenges and Risks:
Combustion Issues: Has a lower cetane number than diesel, causing poor combustion quality.
Engine Risks: Can trigger diesel knock (uneven burning, power loss, engine damage).
Mixing Limitations: Blending challenges exist but can be partly solved with biodiesel addition.
Cost Factor: Requires additives to restore cetane number, increasing costs.
Blending Limit: Experts suggest ≤10% blending to avoid harm.
Pilot Phase: Testing will take ~18 months before possible large-scale adoption.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:
1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None
Delhi government has announced a feasibility study to test photocatalytic coatings on roads, pavements, and public spaces to bring visible improvements in air quality.
About Smog:
Overview: Combination of smoke and fog, forming smoky fog with soot, gases, and moisture.
Components: Includes soot particulates, sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O₃).
Types:
Sulfurous Smog (London Smog) – Caused by burning coal and sulphur-bearing fuels; worsened by dampness and particulates.
Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles Smog) – Produced when NOₓ and hydrocarbons react under sunlight, forming ozone; appears as a brownish haze with respiratory effects.
The Supreme Court rejected a plea against a religious leader inaugurating Mysuru Dasara, reminding that the Preamble upholds secularism, liberty, equality, and fraternity as core ideals of unity.
Backgrounder:
The Karnataka government invited Banu Mushtaq, 2025 International Booker Prize winner, to inaugurate Mysuru Dasara Festival and perform the pooja.
A 2023 video resurfaced where she questioned the worship of Goddess Bhuvaneshwari, sparking controversy.
BJP and others opposed the invite, for her selective criticism of Hindu rituals and demanded withdrawal of the invite sent to her.
Supreme Court’s Observations:
Secular Character: The Court reminded that the Preamble enshrines secularism, liberty, equality, and fraternity as unifying ideals.
State’s Neutrality: Dasara inauguration was a State event, not a private ritual. The State “maintains no religion of its own” (echoing M. Ismail Faruqui, 1994).
Key Precedents Recalled:
Kesavananda Bharati (1973) & S.R. Bommai (1994): Secularism = basic feature of the Constitution.
R.C. Poudyal (1994): Even before “secular” was inserted (42nd Amendment, 1976), the Constitution upheld equal treatment of all faiths.
Dr. Balram Singh v. UOI (2024): State can intervene to curb religious practices impeding equality & development.
About the Preamble:
Nature: Introductory statement; reflects philosophy, vision, and objectives.
Origin: Based on Objectives Resolution (Nehru, 1946); adopted 1947.
Declarations: India as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic ensuring Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
Symbolism:
Source of Authority: “We, the People of India.”
Nature of State: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
Amendment of the Preamble:
Permissible: Supreme Court (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) has held that Preamble is part of Constitution and can be amended without violating Basic Structure.
Only Amendment:42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 (during Emergency).
Added “Socialist” and “Secular” between Sovereign and Democratic.
Added “Integrity” to Unity of the Nation.
Key Judicial Pronouncements:
Berubari Union Case (1960): Preamble not a part of the Constitution; only a tool for interpretation.
Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Overruled Berubari; Preamble is part of the Constitution, embodies basic structure but cannot override provisions.
S.R. Bommai Case (1994): Secularism upheld as basic feature of the Constitution.
LIC of India Case (1995): Reaffirmed Preamble as integral, but non-justiciable (not enforceable in court).
[UPSC 2020] The Preamble to the Constitution of India is:
Options: (a) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect
(b) not a part of the Constitution and has no legal effect either
(c) part of the Constitution and has the same legal effect as any other part
(d) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts*
The Election Commission de-listed 474 Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP) for not contesting polls in six years, as part of its electoral clean-up drive.
Delisting of Political Parties:
ECI’s Powers: Governed by Section 29A, RP Act, 1951.
No explicit power with ECI to de-register a party once registered, except for fraud or anti-Constitutional allegiance.
Judicial Interpretation:
INC vs Institute of Social Welfare (2002): SC ruled that ECI cannot de-register parties, only delist or declare inactive, which removes privileges but NOT their legal entity.
About Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs):
Constitutional Right: Right to form political associations is guaranteed under Article 19(1)(c).
Registration: RUPPs are political associations registered with the Election Commission of India (ECI) under Section 29A, Representation of the People Act, 1951.
Not recognised: As either State or National parties because they have not secured the required vote share or seats in past elections.
Privileges & Benefits:
Tax exemption under Section 13A, Income Tax Act, 1961.
Eligibility for common poll symbols during elections (under Symbols Order, 1968).
Gyanex (Gaganyaan Analog Experiments) ground-based astronaut simulations are being conducted by ISRO with ICMR and Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Bengaluru, to prepare Indian astronauts for the 2027 Gaganyaan mission.
What are Gaganyaan Analog Experiments (Gyanex)?
Purpose: India’s first systematic programme in space medicine and astronaut psychology, preparing protocols for Gaganyaan and future missions like space stations and lunar expeditions.
Setup: Conducted at the Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Bengaluru, with ICMR support. Astronauts and defence personnel live in a mock spacecraft simulator under confinement, consuming DRDO-developed space food.
Activities: Strict space-like routines involving scientific experiments, resource management, schedules, and limited supplies. Tests also cover communication with time-delay simulation.
Gyanex-1: Group Captain Angad Pratap and two others confined for 10 days; completed 11 experiments on psychology, biomedicine, and communications.
Microgravity Simulation: Weightlessness cannot be reproduced on Earth; instead, 7-day bed-confinement at 6° head tilt studied microgravity effects.
Other Indian Analog Missions:
Ladakh Human Analog Mission (Nov 2024): Simulated interplanetary survival in cold, barren terrain.
HOPE Habitat at Tso Kar (Aug 2025): Tested 8 m habitat + 5 m utility module in Mars-like conditions of low pressure, saline permafrost, and high UV radiation.
About Gaganyaan Mission:
Overview: India’s first human spaceflight mission, initiated in 2007, to send 3 astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (400 km) for 3 days, followed by Arabian Sea splashdown.
Rocket: Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3), adapted from GSLV Mk3, certified in 2025 for safe human use.
Significance: India to become the 4th nation (after US, Russia, China) with crewed spaceflight capability.
Latest Timeline (as of Sept 2025):
Dec 2025: First uncrewed mission (G1) with humanoid Vyommitra.
2026: Two more uncrewed flights for life-support, avionics, and escape tests.
Early 2027: First crewed mission – 3 astronauts in orbit for 3 days.
Progress so far:
80–85% development complete: avionics, parachutes, crew safety systems validated.
Integrated Air Drop Test (Aug 2025): Confirmed crew module deceleration.
Crew Escape System: Multiple ground and flight tests successful.
Recovery: Indian Navy and Australian Space Agency conducting splashdown drills.
Four IAF test pilots shortlisted: Shubhanshu Shukla, Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Angad Pratap, Ajit Krishnan.
All trained inRussia, now in advanced Indian training. Final crew of three will be chosen for maiden flight.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements: The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its first attempt.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3
The sinking of the ELSA 3 ship off the Kerala coast in May led to a significant ecological disruption in the south-eastern Arabian Sea, a new study has confirmed.
About the Pollution and Contaminants:
Oil Slick: Wreck of ELSA 3 released petroleum pollutants, initially forming a slick of about 2 square miles.
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Compounds like naphthalene, fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene detected; toxic, carcinogenic, and bioaccumulative.
Naphthalene Marker: High levels confirmed continuous leakage from fuel tanks.
Trace Metals: Nickel, lead, copper, vanadium found in elevated levels in water and sediments, worsening toxicity.
Distribution: Oil spread shifted with sea turbulence—first mid-depth concentration, later visible on the surface.
Ecological Impacts of the Oil Spill:
Plankton: Zooplankton showed pollutant accumulation, marking entry into the marine food chain.
Fish Eggs & Larvae: Collected in the southwest monsoon spawning season displayed decay and mortality, threatening commercial species recruitment.
Benthic Organisms: Sensitive species declined within days; only pollution-tolerant worms and bivalves survived, reflecting seabed stress.
Higher Fauna: Brown Noddy seabird (Anous stolidus) recorded with oil-soaked plumage, highlighting risks to birds and larger marine life.
Overall Effect: A multi-level disruption from plankton to fish stocks to seabirds.
Microbial Response and Bioremediation:
Bacterial Diversity: Metagenomic studies found hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria near the wreck.
• One of the world’s largest volcanic provinces (~66 mya)
• Basalt lava flows covering ~500,000 sq. km
• Step-like “trap” topography, fossil beds, red bole layers
• Linked to end-Cretaceous mass extinction
• Part of Western Ghats; within Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
St. Mary’s Island Cluster (Udupi, Karnataka)
• Four islands in Arabian Sea near Udupi
• Famous for hexagonal/polygonal rhyolitic lava columns (~85–88 mya)
• Formed during breakup of India–Madagascar
• Declared National Geo-heritage Monument (2016)
• Rare acidic lava formations, unique in India
Meghalayan Age Caves (East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya)
• Mawmluh Cave is type locality for Meghalayan Age (~4,200 years ago)
• Records global drought event in late Holocene
• Meghalaya has longest sandstone cave (Krem Puri – 24.5 km)
• Karst systems preserve stalagmites, paleoclimate archives
• Culturally significant to Khasi tribes; threatened by mining
Naga Hill Ophiolite (Nagaland)
• 200 km belt of uplifted oceanic crust & mantle rocks
• Composed of gabbro, peridotite, basalt
• Formed at supra-subduction / mid-ocean ridge zones
• Later thrust onto Indian continental plate
• Only major ophiolite exposure in India; National Geological Monument
Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills, Andhra Pradesh)
• Quaternary-age coastal red sand mounds (~12,000–18,500 years old)
• Spread over 5 km near Visakhapatnam
• Derived from ancient Khondalite rocks
• Record climate shifts, sea-level oscillations, monsoon history
• Mesolithic–Neolithic artefacts found; National Geo-heritage Monument
Tirumala Hills (Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh)
• Famous for Eparchaean Unconformity (1.5 billion-year gap)
• Boundary between Archaean gneiss & Proterozoic quartzites • Hosts Silathoranam natural arch, rare erosional landform
• Hills rise to ~900 m; part of Cuddapah Basin
• Combines geological, tectonic, and spiritual significance
Varkala Cliff (Kerala)
• Coastal cliff escarpment up to 80 m high
• Exposes Mio-Pliocene Warkalli Formation (1.3–25 mya)
• Fossiliferous sedimentary rocks beside sea (rare in India)
• Natural springs and aquifers emerge from cliff face
• Declared National Geological Monument; major tourism hub (Papanasam Beach)
Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List
What is it: An inventory of cultural and natural sites that a member country plans to nominate for future World Heritage status.
Requirement: A site must stay on this list for at least one year before nomination.
Purpose: Allows UNESCO to assess Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and plan conservation.
Note: Not all sites on the Tentative List become World Heritage Sites.
World Heritage Sites (WHS): Cultural, natural, or mixed sites recognised under the 1972 World Heritage Convention for their OUV.
Natural: National parks, caves, biodiversity zones.
Mixed: Sacred landscapes with both cultural and natural value.
10 Criteria for Selection: A site must satisfy at least one of these:
Cultural (i–vi): Masterpiece of human genius; interchange of values; unique cultural testimony; outstanding architecture/landscape; example of settlement/land use; linked to events, traditions, or ideas of universal significance.
Natural (vii–x): Exceptional natural beauty; example of Earth’s history; ecological or biological processes; key habitats for in-situ biodiversity conservation and threatened species.
India: It is currently a member of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (2021–2025 term); Has 42 World Heritage Sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed).
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four
The PM has recently inspected the progress of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal in the Ahmedabad district.
About National Maritime Heritage Complex at Lothal:
Location: Lothal, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, in the Bhal region near the Gulf of Khambhat.
Developer: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Government of India.
Objective: To showcase India’s 5,000-year-old maritime history, especially the role of Lothal as the world’s earliest dockyard during the Indus Valley Civilization.
Historical Significance of Lothal:
Built around 2200 BCE as a major Harappan trade and craft centre for beads, gems, and ornaments.
Lothal in Gujarati means “Mound of the Dead”, similar to Mohenjo-daro.
Excavated by S.R. Rao (1955–1960).
Dockyard confirmed through studies (size: 222 x 37 m), once linked with Sabarmati’s old course.
Evidence of Lock Gates and Sluice System to regulate flow of water.
Trade connections extended to Mesopotamia and other ancient regions.
Nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2014); only known port-town of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Features of the Complex:
Exhibition halls, maritime park, amphitheater, museum, and research/educational facilities.
Will highlight ancient trade routes, shipbuilding traditions, and navigation techniques.
Expected to be a major hub for cultural tourism and heritage education.
[UPSC 2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelling water into connected reservoirs?
The 14th Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival was inaugurated in Manipur.
About Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival:
Overview: An annual agricultural and cultural festival celebrated in Sirarakhong village, Ukhrul district, Manipur.
Origin: Began in 2010 to promote the Hathei chilli and its farming traditions.
Focus: Highlights the Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged Hathei chilli, which received GI status in 2021.
Activities: Involves flag hoisting, Tangkhul Naga cultural events, buyer–seller meets, marketing programmes, exhibitions, and awareness drives on government schemes.
Salient Features of Hathei Chilli:
Local Identity: Known as Sirarakhong chilli, indigenous to Ukhrul district.
Cultivation: Grown on slopes under the traditional jhum system.
Distinct Qualities: Recognised for its bright red colour, unique flavour, and medium pungency.
ASTA Value: Possesses a high American Spice Trade Association colour value, making it sought after for food colouring.
Nutritional Benefits: Rich in antioxidants, Vitamin C, and calcium, with medicinal value.
Uses: Widely used in cooking, pickles, flavouring, food colouring, and processing industries.
Uniqueness: Its qualities stem from the soil and climate of Sirarakhong, not reproducible elsewhere.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:
Tradition- State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
Bima Sugam, envisioned as the world’s largest online marketplace for insurance, was officially launched by the Bima Sugam India Federation (BSIF) at the IRDAI headquarters in Hyderabad.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies has entered into force on 15 September 2025, three years after adoption in June 2022.
What is the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies?
Nature: First WTO treaty centred on environmental sustainability, designed to reduce harmful subsidies that drive illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing and overfishing.
Core Prohibitions:
Subsidies for IUU fishing vessels or operators.
Subsidies for fishing in overfished stocks, unless linked to recovery plans.
Subsidies for high-seas fishing in areas outside coastal state jurisdiction or Regional Fisheries Management Organizations.
Transparency: Members must provide detailed reports on fish stocks, fleets, catch volumes, and subsidies.
Transition Period: Two years allowed for developing countries and least developed countries before full implementation.
Phased Approach: Called “Fish One”, to be followed by “Fish Two” covering overcapacity and fleet subsidies.
Global Significance: Contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 14.6, which seeks elimination of harmful subsidies to protect global fish stocks.
India and this Agreement:
Position: India welcomed the treaty, noting it is one of the lowest fisheries subsidizers despite its large fishing community.
Equity Argument: Urged that historic subsidizers and industrial fishing nations take greater obligations, based on polluter pays principle and common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).
Sector Context: India’s fisheries are dominated by millions of small-scale, traditional fishers dependent on coastal resources, requiring fair treatment.
Benefits for India:
Curbing IUU fishing by foreign industrial fleets, protecting coastal livelihoods.
Allowing space for stock-rebuilding subsidies tied to sustainability.
Ensuring fair competition for Indian traditional fishers in global trade.
[UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the
Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme
Karnataka govt. has approved Upper Krishna Project Phase-III to raise Almatti dam height, while Maharashtra warned of moving the Supreme Court against it.
Why is Maharashtra opposing it?
Fears submergence of villages and agricultural land in its territory if water levels rise further.
Worries about reduced water availabilitydownstream, affecting its irrigation and drinking water projects.
About Almatti Dam:
Overview: It is a hydroelectric and irrigation project built on the Krishna River in North Karnataka.
Completion: July 2005, as part of the Upper Krishna Irrigation Project (UKP).
Dimensions: Height 52.5 m, length 3.5 km.
Power Generation: A 290 MW station using vertical Kaplan turbines (five of 55 MW and one of 15 MW).
Two separate powerhouses: Almatti I and II generate power before releasing water into the Narayanpur Reservoir.
Functions: Provides irrigation, potable water, hydroelectric power, and helps in flood management.
Back2Basics: Krishna River
Origin: Near Mahabaleshwar (Satara, Maharashtra), in the Western Ghats.
Length: ~1,300 km, second-longest river in peninsular India after Godavari.
Course: Flows through Maharashtra (303 km), Karnataka (480 km), Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh, before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
This newscard is an excerpt from the original articles published in The Hindu.
About the Malabar Revolt:
Nature: Also known as the Moplah or Mappila Rebellion, it was a major uprising in the Malabar region of Kerala.
Causes:
Exploitative land tenure policies and high rents on tenant farmers.
Lack of tenure security and arbitrary evictions by Hindu Jenmi landlords.
A tradition of smaller Moplah uprisings since the 19th century.
Immediate trigger: British attempts to arrest Khilafat leaders in Eranad and Valluvanad during the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements.
Character: Combined anti-colonial resistance, agrarian unrest, and communal violence, making it one of the most complex uprisings of the freedom struggle.
Beginning: Revolt broke out on 20 August 1921, with attacks on police stations, British offices, and landlord property.
British Response: Martial law, mass troop deployment, brutal suppression by early 1922.
Leaders:
Variyamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji: Set up a parallel Khilafat government in Nilambur.
Ali Musaliar: Spiritual guide, revered locally, executed by British.
Sayyid Alavi Tangal: religious inspiration for resistance.
Consequences and Atrocities:
Parallel Government: Rebels briefly established parallel administration in parts of Malabar.
Casualties: 2,337 rebels killed, over 45,000 imprisoned, nearly 10,000 missing.
Violence: Widespread communal killings, forced conversions, destruction of temples and homes.
Wagon Tragedy (Nov 1921): 67 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a railway wagon.
Political Shift: Indian National Congress initially supported the anti-British nature, but withdrew after communal excesses.
Historical Assessment:
Bipan Chandra: Saw it primarily as a peasant/agrarian revolt.
Sumit Sarkar: Interpreted it as an anti-landlord revolt.
Colonial View: Framed as a communal rebellion to weaken anti-British legitimacy.
Recent Scholarship: Abbas Panakkal highlights it as part of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation, initially uniting Hindus and Muslims.
E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Saumyendranath Tagore: Called it a spontaneous peasant uprising against colonial oppression.
Recognition: Many rebels are honoured as freedom fighters by Kerala government, though debates continue whether to classify it as anti-colonial, agrarian, or communal.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events?
Options:
(a) The Revolt of 1857 (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859 – 60 (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900*
After Operation Sindoor and Pakistani drone incursions, the Army is upgrading air defence with advanced radars to counter low-RCS (radar cross-section) drones and other aerial threats along northern and western borders.
What are Radars?
About: Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging; it uses radio waves to locate, track, and measure speed of objects.
Components: Transmitter emits radio signals, receiver captures reflections.
Functions: Measures direction, distance (via time delay), and velocity (via Doppler shift).
Types in air defence:
Surveillance radars: Monitor airspace and detect aerial objects, not directly linked to weapons.
Fire control radars: Provide targeting data to guide anti-aircraft guns or missiles.
Current Indian Capabilities:
Indian Air Force: Operates High-Power Radars and Medium-Power Radars for long-range, high-altitude threats such as jets, AWACS, and large transport aircraft.
For fire control, the Air Force employs systems like the 3D Central Acquisition Radar and Rajendra radar.
Indian Army: Uses Low-Level Light-Weight Radars, designed to pick up low-flying, small radar cross-section objects like drones.
Upgraded Flycatcher and Air Defence Tactical Control Radar systems to aim weapons and manage local defence.
India’s Air Defence Infrastructure:
Missile systems: Includes Russian S-400 and the indigenous Akash missile system.
Army’s Akashteer system: Integrates radars, sensors, air defence guns, and communications into a real-time operational air picture.
IAF’s IACCS (Integrated Air Command and Control System): Unifies data from multiple assets for coordinated detection and interception.
Mission Sudarshan Chakra: Ongoing modernisation programme; DRDO recently tested the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:
1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft
2. Monitoring of precipitation
3. Tracking the migration of animals
In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?
Globally, stablecoins face regulatory scrutiny; the Bank of England has proposed ownership limits (£10k–£20k for individuals, £10m for businesses) to reduce banking system risks.
About Stablecoins:
Definition: Cryptocurrencies designed to maintain stable value, usually pegged to fiat currency, commodities, or other crypto.
Role: Provide price stability, often used to park profits or enable fast, low-cost cross-border transactions without intermediaries.
Use: Rarely for retail payments; mainly act as a bridge asset within crypto markets.
Types:
Fiat-backed (e.g., Tether/USDT).
Commodity-backed (gold, silver, oil).
Crypto-backed (collateralised by other cryptos).
Algorithmic (peg maintained via programmed supply-demand adjustments).
Example: Tether (USDT) backed in theory by cash and US Treasuries.
Market Growth: Could rise tenfold to $2 trillion by 2028 (Standard Chartered, Apr 2025).
Risks Associated with Stablecoins:
Financial Stability Risk: Vulnerable to bank-run scenarios. Example: TerraUSD collapse (2022) lost 60% peg value.
Banking System Impact: Can drain deposits from banks, reducing lending capacity.
BIS Concerns:
Singleness: Deviations from fiat peg in secondary markets.
Elasticity: Limited expansion due to reserve requirements.
Integrity: Weak KYC, enabling money laundering, terror financing.
Cybersecurity: DeFi-linked stablecoins prone to hacking and theft.
Regulatory Gaps: Lack of uniform global standards leads to fraud and accountability issues.
Global Regulatory Approaches:
United States, GENIUS Act (2025): Only insured financial institutions may issue; must hold 1:1 low-risk reserves; AML/CFT compliance required.
European Union, MiCA (2024): Regulates E-money Tokens (EMTs) and Asset-Referenced Tokens (ARTs); issuers restricted to authorised EU firms; strict reserve and consumer protection.
Hong Kong, Stablecoin Ordinance (2025): Licensing by HK Monetary Authority; full high-quality liquid reserves; strict audits and AML/CFT rules.
United Kingdom, Bank of England: Proposed ownership limits to prevent rapid deposit outflows and maintain financial stability.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Bitcoins’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries.
2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with a Bitcoin address.
3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Australian scientists have developed a simpler, portable version of ion chromatography called Aquamonitrix, enabling field-based analysis of nitrate and nitrite ions.
About Ion Chromatography:
Overview: A laboratory technique used to separate and measure ions (charged particles) in a sample.
Process: A liquid sample is passed through a long column that separates ions based on their properties.
Equipment: Requires large, complex, and costly lab machines.
Use in Environment: Detects harmful ions like nitrate and nitrite that pollute soil and water.
What is Aquamonitrix?
Overview: A portable ion chromatograph designed by the University of Tasmania (Australia).
Features: Small, battery-operated, and nearly 10 times cheaper than lab equipment.
Testing: Students tested it on soil pore water, measuring nitrate and nitrite levels accurately when compared with lab results.
How it Works?
Soil water collected with a vacuum pump and filtered.
Water injected into the Aquamonitrix unit.
Uses a sodium chloride solution to carry the sample.
Equipped with a UV light detector, showing nitrate and nitrite as clear peaks.
Simpler design avoids messy interference from multiple ions.
Applications:
Environment: Monitoring nitrate and nitrite pollution in soil and water.
Agriculture: Helps optimise fertiliser use and reduce overuse.
Water Safety: Tests drinking water quality on site.
Education: Serves as a teaching tool linking classroom to real-world chemistry.
[UPSC 2024] “Membrane Bioreactors” are often discussed in the context of:
The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has directed State governments not to process applications for Sikh pilgrims’ visit to Nankana Sahib, Pakistan, for the November 2025 birth anniversary (Parkash Gurpurab) of Guru Nanak Dev Ji.
About Nankana Sahib:
Location: Punjab province, Pakistan, near Lahore.
Historical Significance: Birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469). Earlier called Rai-Bhoi-Di Talwandi; renamed Nankana Sahib in his honour.
Major Shrines:
Gurdwara Janam Asthan: Built over Guru Nanak’s birthplace by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1818–19).
Other sites: Gurdwara Patti Sahib, Bal Leela, Mal Ji Sahib, Kiara Sahib, Tambu Sahib, and shrines linked to Guru Arjan (5th Guru) and Guru Hargobind (6th Guru).
Cultural Relevance: Pilgrimage site for millions of Sikhs globally; integral to the annual Parkash Gurpurab commemorations.
About Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539):
Birth & Early Life: Born in 1469 at Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib). Enlightened at Sultanpur Lodhi in 1496.
Teachings: Rejected rituals, caste hierarchy, and idol worship; emphasised devotion to one formless God (Nirankar).
Core Philosophy:
Three Pillars: Naam Japna (remembrance of God), Kirat Karna (honest work), Vand Chhakna (sharing with others).
Equality & Justice: Advocated gender equality, social service (Seva), and community dining (Langar).
Message: “Ek Onkar Satnam”, Oneness of God and humanity.
Death: Passed away in 1539 at Kartarpur Sahib (now in Pakistan). Appointed Guru Angad Dev Ji as successor.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
1. Dadu Dayal
2. Guru Nanak
3. Tyagaraja
Which among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi Dynasty fell and Babur took over?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
ASI will install a revised plaque at Sarnath, crediting Babu Jagat Singh (1787–88) for uncovering its archaeological importance, rather than British archaeologists.
About Sarnath:
Location: Near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, at the confluence of the Ganga and Varuna rivers.
Religious Importance: After enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha delivered the DhammachakkappavattanaSutta (First Sermon) here in 528 BCE to five disciples, laying the foundation of the Sangha.
Key Monuments:
Dhamek Stupa (built c. 500 CE, 39 m high, 28 m diameter).
Ashoka Pillar with Lion Capital (India’s national emblem) and Ashoka Chakra.
Chaukhandi Stupa (Gupta era; octagonal tower added in Mughal period).
Mulagandha Kuti Vihar with frescoes of Buddha’s life.
Sarnath Archaeological Museum with the original Lion Capital and Buddhist sculptures.
Archaeology: Excavations over 200 years, including B. R. Mani (2013–14), show Buddhist activity even before Ashoka.
Holy Site: One of Buddhism’s Four Holy Places (others: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Kushinagar).
Historic Role: By the 7th century CE, Sarnath hosted 30 monasteries and over 3,000 monks, flourishing under Mauryan, Kushan, and Gupta patronage.
Plaque Controversy and ASI Action:
Current Plaque: Credits Mr Duncan and Col. E. Mackenzie (1798) for exposing Sarnath, followed by excavations by Cunningham, Kittoe, Oertel, Marshall, Hargreaves, and Sahni.
Jagat Singh Claim: Descendant of Babu Jagat Singh (of Benares ruler Chait Singh’s family) petitioned ASI, arguing he first exposed Sarnath’s remains in 1787–88 during a digging exercise.
ASI’s Response: ASI confirmed revision; a corrected plaque will be installed soon. Officials noted many pre-1861 plaques reflected British biases.
Artifacts: Jagat Singh’s digging uncovered a casket with Buddha relics, now partly housed in the Asiatic Society, Kolkata.
Cultural Significance:
UNESCO Nomination: Officially proposed for the World Heritage List (2025–26 cycle) after 27 years on the tentative list.
Policy Context: India projects itself as the land of Buddha; recently issued notices to stop auctions of Buddhist relics abroad.
[UPSC 2019] In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
Options: (a) Kanganahalli* (b) Sanchi I (c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura
