Type: Prelims Only

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Indian Navy Updates

INS Varsha Naval Base

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

Why in the News?

India is set to operationalise INS Varsha, a highly strategic naval base designed specifically to house nuclear-powered submarines, on the eastern coast near Rambilli in Andhra Pradesh by 2026.

About INS Varsha

  • INS Varsha is being developed as a specialized base to house India’s growing fleet of nuclear-powered submarines, including both Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarines (SSBNs) and Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarine (SSNs).
  • It will be situated near the coastal village of Rambilli, about 50 km south of Visakhapatnam, home to the Eastern Naval Command.
  • The naval bases lies on the confluence of Sarada and Varaha rivers.
  • The facility will have underground pens and tunnels to ensure stealthy operations for nuclear submarines.
  • This design will allow submarines to enter and exit the base undetected, maintaining their stealth, particularly important for SSBNs which carry nuclear missiles during long patrols.
  • The base will cover an area of 20 square kilometers and is designed to accommodate at least 10 nuclear submarines.
  • Like China’s nuclear submarine base at Hainan Island (in the South China Sea), INS Varsha will be situated in waters that allow submarines to operate without detection from satellite surveillance.

Project Varsha

ins varsha

  • INS Varsha is part of Project Varsha, a top-secret initiative aimed at bolstering India’s maritime deterrence capabilities by building a dedicated facility for its nuclear-powered submarines.
  • This project is crucial to countering the growing naval presence and strategic expansion of China in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  • It will support the fleet of Arihant-class submarines, which are crucial for India’s sea-based nuclear deterrent

 

[UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?

(a) Amphibious warfare ship

(b) Nuclear-powered submarine

(c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel

(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

 

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

CPCB revises Classification of Industries

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has recently updated its classification of industries, introducing a new category known as the ‘Blue Category.’

Classification of Industries by CPCB:

  • The CPCB classifies industries based on their environmental impact, focusing on air pollution, water pollution, and hazardous waste generation.
  • Industries are classified using the Pollution Index (PI), which is calculated by considering air, water, and waste pollution, with equal weight given to each factor.
  • PI Categories:
    1. White: PI < 25 (least polluting industries)
    2. Green: 25 ≤ PI < 55
    3. Orange: 55 ≤ PI < 80
    4. Red: PI > 80 (most polluting industries)
  • This system helps determine industry locations, inspection norms, and pollution-related health impacts.
  • It is regulated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to improve environmental standards.
  • Presently 419 industrial sectors are categorized into Red, Orange, Green, White, and Blue.

About the ‘Blue’ Category (Newly Introduced):

  • The Blue Category was introduced for industries providing Essential Environmental Services (EES) like pollution management and waste control.
  • It recognizes industries involved in critical environmental management, such as waste-to-energy plants, sewage treatment plants, and landfill management.
  • Industries in the Blue category receive a 2-year extension on their consent to operate as an incentive for their role in managing pollution.
  • Scope: Includes industries that manage waste from both domestic and industrial sources, such as:
    • Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Plants: Now in the Blue category despite their high PI, due to their role in waste energy recovery.
    • Compressed Biogas (CBG) Plants: Classified as Blue for their low environmental impact when processing municipal waste and agro residue.
    • Sewage Treatment Plants & Landfills: These facilities manage environmental hazards through controlled waste disposal.
  • Blue category industries must comply with all environmental norms, and their Pollution Index is still calculated as per the standard formula.
  • Industries showing successful management may receive extended operating permits and other incentives.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to furnace oil, consider the following statements:

1.It is a product of oil refineries. 2.Some industries use it to generate power. 3.Its use causes sulfur emissions into the environment.

(a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the news?

China has unveiled the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye telescope in Antarctica.

About the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope

  • The Three Gorges Antarctic Eye is a 3.2m wide radio/millimetre-wave telescope located at China’s Zhongshan Station in Antarctica.
  • It was developed by China Three Gorges University (CTGU) and Shanghai Normal University (SHNU).
  • This telescope can detect radio waves and millimeter waves, types of invisible light, allowing scientists to study phenomena like neutral hydrogen and ammonia molecules, essential for understanding star formation and gas movement in space.
  • Unlike most telescopes, it works with both radio and millimeter waves, providing a more comprehensive view of space.
  • It is built in one of the harshest environments on Earth, with operating temperatures below -60°C and strong winds, making construction particularly challenging.
[UPSC 2015] The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of:

(a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence

(b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim

(c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region

(d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region

 

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

Preliminary Findings of the Genome India Project

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The preliminary findings of Genome India Project, based on the whole genome sequencing of 10,074 healthy and unrelated Indians from 85 populations across the country, were published recently.

About Genome India Project

  • The Genome India Project was launched in January 2020 to map the genetic diversity of India’s population.
  • It is a collaborative project supported and funded by the Department of Biotechnology, GoI, involving multiple institutions across the country.
  • Objectives:
    • Decode the genetic diversity of India’s population through large-scale genome sequencing.
    • Create an exhaustive catalog of genetic variations, including common, low-frequency, rare, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and structural variations.
    • Develop a reference haplotype structure for Indians, which can be used to impute missing genetic variation in future studies.
    • Design genome-wide arrays for research and diagnostics at an affordable cost.
    • Establish a biobank for DNA and plasma collected for future research use.
  • The Genome India Database, which houses the genetic data, is now available to researchers worldwide and is stored at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) in Faridabad, Haryana.

Preliminary findings of the Study

  • The project genotyped 10,074 individuals from 85 populations, including 32 tribal and 53 non-tribal groups across India.
  • Blood samples were collected from around 20,000 individuals, with DNA samples from 10,074 individuals subjected to whole genome sequencing.
  • A total of 180 million genetic variants were identified, of which 130 million are in non-sex chromosomes (22 autosomes) and 50 million are in sex chromosomes X and Y.
  • Variant Significance:
    • Variants associated with diseases.
    • Rare variants.
    • Variants unique to India or specific communities.
[UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to

(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cell

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Navkar Mahamantra Divas

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Navkar Mahamantra Divas

Why in the News?

Prime Minister has inaugurated and participated in Navkar Mahamantra Divas at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.

What is Vishwa Navkar Mahamantra Divas?

  • The event is observed annually on April 9 to promote peace, non-violence, and spiritual harmony globally by chanting the Navkar Mantra collectively.
  • The mantra venerates the 5 supreme beings:
    1. Arihants: Represent those who have attained “Keval Gyan” (perfect knowledge) and guide “Bhavya Jeevas” (souls destined for liberation). They possess twelve divine qualities.
    2. Siddhas: Those who have eradicated all karmas and attained Moksha. They are endowed with eight pure qualities.
    3. Acharyas: The leaders who follow Mahavrat and guide others on the spiritual path. They embody 36 virtues.
    4. Upadhyayas: Scholars who impart knowledge related to the path to Moksha, with 25 virtues.
    5. Sadhus: Renunciants who refine themselves through penance, with 27 significant qualities.

Key Jain Principles Associated:

  • Ahimsa (Non-Violence): The Navkar Mantra embodies the principle of Ahimsa, advocating for peace and harmony by acknowledging the interconnectedness of all life forms, thus promoting Maitri (friendliness) towards all beings.
  • Anekantavada (Non-Absolutism) and Syadvada: This principle promotes appreciating diverse perspectives and truths, which was emphasized as a solution to global challenges like terrorism and environmental degradation, reflecting the Jain concept of Syadvada (conditional truth).
  • Tapas (Self-Discipline) and Vairagya (Detachment): The mantra is seen as a spiritual tool for self-realization, mental stability, and fostering inner peace, encouraging Tapas and Vairagya as means to achieve spiritual growth.
  • Samyak Darshana (Right Faith) and Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): The teachings of the Navkar Mantra were connected to building a developed India rooted in heritage while embracing progress without losing cultural values, emphasizing the importance of Samyak Darshana and Samyak Jnana.
  • Svadhyaya (Self-Study) and Sadhana (Spiritual Practice): The mantra encourages self-discipline and truth as guiding principles for personal growth and societal harmony, promoting Svadhyaya and Sadhana as essential practices.
[UPSC 2011] The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by:

(a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul

 

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

Extinct Dire Wolf species returns after 12,500 years

Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Colossal Biosciences, a biotech firm based in US, has successfully bred the extinct Dire Wolf pups using gene-editing technologies.

About Dire Wolf (Aenocyon dirus)

  • The dire wolf lived during the Pleistocene Epoch, approximately 6 million to 11,700 years ago, and went extinct around 13,000 years ago.
  • Physical Characteristics and Behaviour:
    • It was larger than the modern gray wolf, standing about 5 feet tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 150 pounds, significantly heavier than the average gray wolf.
    • It had a stockier body, a robust skull, and powerful jaws, adapted for hunting and consuming large prey. It likely had light or white fur, unlike the gray, black, or white coats of modern wolves.
    • As an apex predator, the dire wolf primarily preyed on large mammals like bison and horses.
    • While it did not hunt in packs as effectively due to its size, it was capable of cooperative hunting when needed.
  • Extinction:
    • The species went extinct likely due to a combination of prey depletion, climate change, and the impact of human activities.
    • Fossils have been found across a wide geographical range, from the La Brea Tar Pits in California to the Mississippi River Valley.
  • Genomic Comparison:
    • The gene-edited pups share 5% DNA of gray wolves but differ in the remaining 0.5%, which accounts for the dire wolf traits.
    • These pups are not exact clones of the dire wolf but are considered “dire wolves” based on their physical resemblance.

Extinct Dire Wolf species returns after 12,500 years

Technologies Used for Resurrection:

  • Ancient DNA Extraction & Analysis: DNA from 13,000 to 72,000-year-old fossils was sequenced to identify key genetic traits.
  • Gene Editing (CRISPR): Scientists used CRISPR to edit gray wolf DNA, introducing features like size, fur color, and muscular traits to resemble the dire wolf.
  • Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT): Edited somatic cells from gray wolves were used to create embryos implanted in dog surrogates. Genetically modified pups were born after 62 days.
  • Embryo Implantation: The gene-edited embryos developed into the first de-extinct dire wolf pups.
[UPSC 2018] The term “”sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction”” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

(a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.

(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Iron inside the Sun is more opaque than expected

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Iron Inside the Sun

Why in the News?

Recent findings have revealed that iron’s opacity inside the Sun may be much higher than previously predicted, challenging current solar models.

Iron Inside the Sun:

  • Iron makes up approximately 0.14% of the Sun’s mass, which is significantly less than hydrogen (~74%) and helium (~24%).
  • Despite its small percentage, iron plays a crucial role in the Sun’s opacity. In the Sun, opacity influences how energy moves from the core to the surface.
  • The higher the opacity, the more energy is trapped, impacting the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates.

Highlights of the New Study:

  • A 2025 study published in Physical Review Letters revealed that iron’s opacity in the Sun’s interior is 30-400% higher than previously predicted by models.
  • Researchers exposed a thin iron sample to X-rays and used spectrometers to measure the shadow cast by the sample.
  • By analyzing how strongly the iron absorbed the radiation, they were able to infer the element’s opacity.
  • Significance:
    • This discovery has important implications for how solar models are constructed.
    • By correcting the opacity of iron, models of the Sun’s temperature profile, fusion rates, and energy distribution may need to be revised.
    • This will lead to a more accurate understanding of stellar behaviour and energy transfer.

Back2Basics: Composition of the Sun

  • The Sun primarily comprises hydrogen and helium, but other elements such as oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron also play significant roles.

Element

Composition by Mass (%)

Key Role
Hydrogen (H) 74% The primary fuel for nuclear fusion in the Sun’s core. It undergoes fusion to form helium, releasing energy that powers the Sun.
Helium (He) 24% A byproduct of hydrogen fusion, helium helps maintain the Sun’s stability and supports continued fusion processes.
Oxygen (O) ~0.8% Oxygen contributes to the Sun’s opacity, assisting in the transport of energy within the star. It also plays a role in nucleosynthesis, where heavier elements are formed in the Sun’s core.
Carbon (C) ~0.3% Carbon is involved in nucleosynthesis and plays a significant role in determining the Sun’s opacity and energy transport mechanisms.
Neon (Ne) ~0.2% Neon is found in the Sun’s atmosphere and is involved in the absorption of radiation, affecting the Sun’s energy output and behavior.
Iron (Fe) ~0.14% Although small in mass, iron significantly impacts the Sun’s opacity, scattering and absorbing radiation, which influences energy transfer. Iron’s opacity affects the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates.

 

[UPSC 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our solar system?

(a) The Earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system

(b) The predominant element in the composition of Earth is silicon

(c) The Sun contains 75 per cent of the mass of the solar system

(d) The diameter of the Sun is 190 times that of the Earth

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

ESA’s Biomass Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Biomass Mission

Why in the News?

The European Space Agency (ESA) is preparing to launch Biomass Mission to map the world’s forests and enhance our understanding of their crucial role in the global carbon cycle.

ESA's Biomass Mission

About the Biomass Mission by ESA

  • The ESA will launch the Biomass mission on April 29, 2025, aboard the Vega C rocket from French Guiana.
  • The mission aims to map the world’s forests, gathering data on their role in the carbon cycle and how they change over time.
  • It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at around 666 km, optimizing sunlight for observations.
  • It is the 7th mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer Program, focusing on data related to Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and land surface.

Features of the Biomass Mission:

  • Biomass uses a P-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor (70 cm frequency), capable of penetrating forest canopies to measure carbon storage in trees and the forest floor.
  • It will be the first satellite to use this cutting-edge P-band SAR technology, offering unprecedented forest biomass data.
  • Equipped with a 12-meter antenna, the satellite will deploy upon launch to conduct broad Earth observations.
  • It will create 3D images of forests, from canopy to roots, providing detailed insights into forest health and carbon storage.

Significance of the Biomass Mission:

  • The mission will fill critical gaps in forest biomass and height data, improving understanding of forests’ role in the carbon cycle and climate change.
  • Biomass will measure carbon storage in forests and track changes due to deforestation and human activity.
  • The mission’s data will aid climate change mitigation strategies by tracking carbon fluxes between forests and the atmosphere.
  • It will support environmental monitoring, assist policymakers, and contribute to global climate change strategies.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3

 

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Innovation Ecosystem in India

[pib] Cu-Phen Metallo-Nanozymes and its Applications

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Metallo-Nanozymes

Why in the News?

Researchers from the CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Chennai has developed a new nanozyme, Cu-Phen, using a catalyst-by-design strategy. A nanozyme is a type of synthetic enzyme made from nanomaterials (extremely tiny particles) that can mimic the function of natural enzymes in biological systems.

About the Metallo-Nanozymes 

  • Cu-Phen (Copper-Phenylalanine) is a type of metallo-nanozyme developed by Indian researchers.
  • It is a synthetic enzyme that mimics the functions of natural enzymes in the body, particularly in controlling the flow of energy at the cellular level.
  • It is made by combining copper ions (Cu²⁺) with phenylalanine, an amino acid, using a special design method called “catalyst-by-design”.
  • It forms a self-assembled nano-structure with a well-defined active site, which is where the enzyme’s function occurs.
  • This structure helps Cu-Phen control the electron transfer process, which is important for many biological functions.
  • Unlike traditional nanozymes, which often have poorly defined active sites, Cu-Phen has a precisely structured active site, allowing it to work more efficiently like natural enzymes in the body.
  • Cu-Phen interacts with cytochrome c, a protein that plays a key role in the electron transport chain, which is part of how our body generates energy.
  • It helps reduce oxygen to water without producing harmful substances called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cells.

Potential Applications

  • Cu-Phen could be used to make energy systems more efficient, like in bioenergy (energy from living things), by mimicking natural energy-making processes.
  • It could help treat diseases like neurodegenerative diseases and cancer by controlling energy production in cells and reducing harmful effects on the body.
  • These nanozymes can help clean water and make energy systems work better, while reducing pollution and harmful by-products.
  • Cu-Phen can also be used in factories to help make useful products like medicines and chemicals by working like artificial enzymes.
  • This new nanozyme is a step forward in creating artificial enzymes that could be used in many areas like medicine, energy, and manufacturing.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements :

1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.

2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.

3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

(a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

What are Mesoscale Convective System (MCS)?

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Mesoscale Convective System

Why in the News?

A recent study in Nature Geoscience suggests that soil moisture levels could help predict severe thunderstorms, like mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), especially in regions like India.

About Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS):

  • MCSs are larger than individual thunderstorms but smaller than larger weather systems like cyclones.
  • They typically cover areas between 100 to 1,000 km in diameter.
  • They form when warm, moist air rises, creating storms that feed off each other, growing in size and intensity as they move across the region.
  • They can cause flash floods, damaging winds, and severe thunderstorms, and are often responsible for large-scale weather events.
  • In tropical regions, MCSs account for 50 to 90 % of total rainfall, making them a major cause of severe weather-related damage.
  • A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.

Soil Moisture’s Role in MCS as per the Study:

  • Shifts in soil moisture can be detected two to five days before the formation of storms, providing critical lead time for early warnings in vulnerable regions.
  • Contrasting soil moisture levels over large areas (hundreds of kilometers) lead to changes in atmospheric conditions, including A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.
  • Larger contrasts in moisture content between dry and wet regions cause greater temperature differences, which in turn lead to changes in wind direction and speed.
  • These variations contribute to turbulence, making storms more intense and spreading rainfall over a wider area.
[UPSC 2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the

1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky 2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds 3. violent upward movement of air and water particles

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of the above produces the thunder

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Hadean Protocrust

Prelims Only | Solar system | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Hadean Protocrust

Why in the News?

A study from Macquarie University, Australia, suggests that plate tectonics may have started earlier than previously thought, with signs of it possibly existing in the Hadean protocrust even before the plates began to move.

What is Hadean Protocrust?

  • The Hadean protocrust is the Earth’s first crust, formed within the first 200 million years of the planet’s creation.
  • During this time, the surface was mostly molten and constantly hit by space rocks, making it very hot and unstable.
  • Over time, parts of the molten surface began to cool and solidify, creating the first crust.

Hadean Protocrust

Back2Basics: Hadean Aeon

  • The Hadean Aeon is the earliest geological eon in Earth’s history, lasting from about 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago.
  • The surface was incredibly hot and volcanic activity was widespread, often described as “hellish.”
  • It was followed by the Archean Eon (about 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), characterized by the formation of Earth’s first stable crust, the beginning of plate tectonics, and the earliest known forms of life.
  • As the surface cooled, the thick parts of the crust formed the first continents, which moved on the hot, semi-fluid layer beneath them called the asthenosphere.

Key Findings of the Recent Study:

  • The researchers found that the chemical signatures linked to plate tectonics might have appeared earlier, even when the Earth’s crust was still forming in the Hadean protocrust.
  • This discovery suggests that early movements of the Earth’s crust, similar to plate tectonics, could have happened before plates began to move as we know them today.
  • The study used models and experiments to support these ideas, but further research is needed to confirm these findings.
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

1. Electromagnetic radiation 2. Geothermal energy 3. Gravitational force 4. Plate movements 5. Rotation of the earth 6. Revolution of the earth

Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 4 and 6 only (d) 2 and 4 only

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

PM Modi at Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

Why in the News?

PM Narendra Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

About the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

  • The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is considered the oldest living cultivated plant globally.
  • It is believed to have grown from a branch of the original Bodhi Vruksha in Bodhgaya under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
    • This branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra, eldest daughter of Emperor Ashoka and his first wife, Queen Devi.
    • The original tree under which Buddha meditated was reportedly destroyed, possibly by Ashoka’s wife Tishyarakshita in some legends.
  • Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is commemorated during the Uduvapa Poya, a festival observed annually on a full moon night in December.

Legend of Sanghamitra’s Journey to Sri Lanka

  • Sanghamitra, originally named Ayapali, lived from 282 BC to 203 BC.
  • Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
  • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
  • After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
    • Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
  • She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Railway Reforms

PM inaugurates New Pamban Bridge 

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pamban Bridge

pamban bridge

Why in the News?

The newly constructed Pamban Bridge was inaugurated by PM Modi to replace a 110-year-old structure that connected Rameswaram to the Indian mainland.

About the Pamban Bridge  

  • The Pamban Bridge, completed in 1914, was India’s first sea bridge, connecting Rameswaram on Pamban Island to the mainland.
  • It featured a double-leaf bascule span, allowing ships to pass through when the bridge lifted.
  • Standing 12.5 meters above sea level and spanning 145 piers, the bridge faced challenges, including cyclones and workforce issues.
  • The old bridge had become unsafe due to severe corrosion and structural weaknesses, highlighted by vibrations detected in 2022.
  • The new bridge features a vertical lift span that can raise in just 5 minutes, with a 22-meter clearance to allow larger vessels to pass, compared to the old bridge’s 1.5 meters.
  • Trains can now travel at speeds up to 75 km/h, a significant improvement from the previous 10 km/h limit.

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Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

CAPTCHA: a digital border between Humans and Bots

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CAPTCHA

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

What is CAPTCHA?

  • CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart.
  • It is a security measure used to differentiate humans from automated bots on websites.
  • It helps protect websites against spam and misuse by ensuring that the user performing actions is a human.
  • It was developed in the early 2000s by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford as a response to the proliferation of automated bots on the internet that created fake accounts, spammed websites, and stole data.
  • The first patent for CAPTCHA was filed in 2003.

How Does CAPTCHA Work?

  • CAPTCHA presents tasks that are easy for humans to solve but hard for machines.
  • These tasks typically involve recognizing distorted text, images, or sounds that machines cannot interpret as reliably as humans.
  • It operates on the principle of the Turing test, designed by British mathematician Alan Turing in the 1950s.
    • This assesses a machine’s ability to exhibit human-like behaviour.
  • Over the years, CAPTCHA has evolved from simple text recognition to more complex tests:
  1. Image Recognition CAPTCHA: Users are asked to identify specific objects within images, such as cars, traffic lights, or storefronts.
  2. reCAPTCHA: Launched by Google in 2009, this system not only serves as a CAPTCHA but also helps digitize text from scanned documents. Users transcribe words that OCR software has been unable to recognize.
  3. Invisible reCAPTCHA: Introduced by Google in 2014, this version analyzes the user’s interaction with the website, such as mouse movements, to determine if they are human without needing them to complete a specific challenge.

Limitations of CAPTCHA

  • Accessibility Issues: CAPTCHA can be challenging for people with disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments.
  • User Inconvenience: The need to solve CAPTCHAs can be cumbersome, particularly on mobile devices, and may detract from user experience.
  • Advancing Bot Technology: As bots become more sophisticated with AI, they are increasingly capable of bypassing CAPTCHA systems, necessitating more complex solutions.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: A digital signature is

1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority issuing it

2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to access information or server on Internet.

3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document and ensuring that the original content is unchanged

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

India’s Subsea Cable Infrastructure

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Undersea Cables

Why in the news?

India is gradually expanding its undersea cable infrastructure, with new systems like Airtel’s 2Africa Pearls and SEA-ME-WE-6 boosting its international internet bandwidth.

What are Undersea Cables?

  • Undersea cables are fiber optic cables laid on the ocean floor that connect internet networks between countries.
  • These cables are heavily insulated and contain fiber optic strands for transmitting data.
  • They surface at landing points, connect to landing stations, and then link to broader terrestrial networks.
  • Approximately 600 undersea cables exist globally.
  • These cables handle 90% of global data, 80% of world trade, and $10 trillion in financial transactions.

India’s Current Undersea Cable Ecosystem:

  • India’s two main hubs for subsea cables are Mumbai and Chennai.
    • 17 international cables land in India, with 95% of subsea cables concentrated in a 6-km stretch in Versova, Mumbai.
  • India has two domestic cable systems:
  1. Chennai–Andaman–Nicobar Islands (CANI)
  2. Kochi–Lakshadweep Islands
  • While current bandwidth is considered sufficient, rising data traffic may soon outpace available capacity.
    • Experts warn that India’s current capacity may become inadequate in the near future.
  • India contributes only 1% of global cable landing stations and 3% of subsea cable systems, highlighting its underrepresentation in the global network.

[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It uses light as the medium for high speed data transmission.

2. It is wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Indian Army Updates

Exercise INDRA 2025

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Exercise INDRA 2025

Why in the News?

The bilateral naval exercise INDRA 2025 between the Indian and Russian navies was held from 28 March to 02 April 2025.

About Exercise INDRA

  • INDRA is a biennial joint military exercise that began in 2003.
  • Over time, INDRA transformed into a tri-service exercise involving Army, Navy, and Air Force, making it more comprehensive and multifaceted.
  • Recent Editions of INDRA:
    • 2021 (12th Edition): Held in Volgograd, Russia; Focused on counter-terrorism operations and enhancing operational synergy.
    • 2023 (13th Edition): Conducted in the Bay of Bengal, India; Involved naval forces from both countries, enhancing maritime cooperation and joint operations.
    • 2025 (14th Edition): It is being conducted in two phases: Harbour phase at Chennai and Sea phase in the Bay of Bengal.

Strategic Importance 

  • The exercise reinforced jointmanship between the Indian and Russian forces, strengthening their ability to collaborate in maritime security operations.
  • It highlighted the shared commitment to upholding maritime order and promoting global peace and stability.
  • Best practices were exchanged, fostering a deeper understanding of each other’s operational doctrines and enhancing the capacity to respond effectively to contemporary maritime security challenges.

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Ramakien Murals of the Grand Palace of Bangkok

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ramakien Murals

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister has highlighted the release of iStamp depicting Ramakien mural paintings by Thai Government.

Ramakien mural

About the Ramakien Murals:

  • The murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version called the Ramakien.
    • The Ramakien holds a vital role in Thai culture, influencing literature, dance, and art, and the murals serve as a visual representation of this national epic.
  • The murals are predominantly displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) in the Grand Palace complex, Bangkok.
  • It illustrates episodes from the Ramakien, highlighting the eternal battle between good and evil.
  • It is located in the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometer corridor surrounding the temple, with 178 panels depicting scenes from the epic.

India-Thailand Cultural Connect

Historical and Cultural Ties:

  • Thailand, part of the Suvarnabhumi territory, is mentioned in the Ramayana.
  • Ancient trade links with South India, and kingdoms like Dvaravati and Khmer had strong ties with India.
  • Brahmanism coexisted with Buddhism, and Thai worship includes Indian deities like Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu.
    • Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE, deeply influencing Thai culture and religion.
  • The Thai language includes Sanskrit and Pali words, while Thai art and architecture exhibit Indian influences, particularly in temples.
  • Association with Lord Rama:
    • The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, is central to Thai culture, with murals depicting episodes in temples.
    • The title Rama has been adopted by all the monarchs of Thailand’s Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782.
    • Ayutthaya city was the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) in present-day Thailand, and it is thought that the name is derived from the Indian city of Ayodhya.

Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations:

  • Diplomatic Ties were established in 1947, the two countries celebrated 75 years of relations in 2022.
  • Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge (1940) promotes educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens visit India for religious and cultural purposes, especially Buddhist sites.

Recent Initiatives:

  • Exhibitions like “Indo-Siam Connect” showcase shared heritage.
  • Joint research and academic exchanges continue to deepen mutual understanding.

 

[UPSC 2010] There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta Caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

(a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves (c) Lomas Rishi caves (d) Nasik Caves

 

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GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

GI Tags Awarded in April 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: GI Tags in news

Why in the News?

Recently, several Geographical Indication (GI) tags have been awarded to unique products, enhancing their protection in the market and giving them a platform for global recognition.

Here is the list of all the GI tags recently Awarded:

State Product Name Description
Meghalaya Ryndia (Meghalaya Handloom Products) Ryndia is an eco-friendly fabric made from Ahimsa Silk by indigenous Khasi, Bhoi, and Jaintia artisans. Known for its durability and luxurious texture, Ryndia is used to make stoles, shawls, and garments with organic dyes from local plants.
Kerala Kannadippaya A traditional tribal handicraft made from the inner layers of reed bamboo. This mat, known for its reflective pattern, provides a cooling effect in summer and warmth during winter. It is woven by various tribal communities, including the Oorali, Mannan, Muthuva, Malayan, and Kadar tribes, primarily in the Idukki, Thrissur, Ernakulam, and Palakkad districts of Kerala.
Tamil Nadu Panruti Cashew This cashew variety is celebrated for its mildly sweet, nutty flavor and its crisp yet tender texture. Grown primarily in Panruti, Tamil Nadu, it has a high demand both domestically and internationally, setting it apart from other cashew varieties due to its unique taste and texture.
Panruti Jackfruit The Panruti jackfruit is a prized agricultural product from Panruti, where commercial cultivation is concentrated. Known for its large size and distinctive flavor, it is available throughout the year, with different varieties ripening at different times. The jackfruit is widely used for making chips, curries, and sweets and has potential for value-added products.
Chettikulam Small Onion Grown in the Aalathur block of Perambalur district, this small onion variety is an important crop in Tamil Nadu, known for its strong aroma and robust flavor. Over 8,000 hectares in the district are dedicated to small onion cultivation, producing 65,000 to 70,000 tonnes annually. This variety is integral to local cooking and is used in various dishes, offering a unique flavor to regional cuisine.
Puliyangudi Acid Lime Known as the Lemon City of Tamil Nadu, Puliyangudi produces acid lime that is small to medium-sized (4–6 cm in diameter) with a vibrant green color and thin, smooth skin. The limes are famous for their tangy taste and are widely used in cooking, especially in Southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, as well as for producing lime juice and lime-based products.
Virudhunagar Samba Vathal These bright red, spicy sambal chilies from Virudhunagar are renowned for their distinct flavor and are a crucial ingredient in Southern Indian cuisine. They are often used in the oleoresin extraction process, which plays a significant role in the spice industry.
Ramanadu Chithiraikar Rice A red rice variety from Ramanadu, this rice is known for its ability to keep hunger at bay for hours, making it a staple in many households. The rice is commonly consumed as a hearty porridge and is recognized for its nutritional value and ability to provide long-lasting energy.
Kumbakonam Betel Leaf Grown in the fertile Cauvery River basin, Kumbakonam Betel Leaf is known for its distinct taste and aroma. It is used in the preparation of paan and as a symbol of hospitality in the region.
West Bengal Thovalai Flower Garland A handcrafted floral garland made from a mix of white, red, and green flowers, Thovalai Flower Garland is used for festivals and special occasions. It is woven in a mat-like fashion and is celebrated for its artistic beauty.
Murshidabad Chhanobora This sweet from Murshidabad is made from chhena (curdled milk) and flavored with cardamom. It is known for its smooth texture and distinct taste, being a traditional treat prepared during festivals and significant occasions.
Bishnupur Motichur Laddu A traditional Bengali sweet laddu, made from finely ground chickpeas, sugar, and ghee. It has a delicate, aromatic flavor and is often enjoyed during festivals like Durga Puja and Diwali. Its historical roots trace back to the Bishnupur region, known for its unique preparation methods.
Kamarpukur Sada Bode A fried Bengali sweet, Kamarpukur Sada Bode is made from wheat flour, sugar, and ghee. It is an important part of Bengali festivals and local traditions, valued for its crisp texture and sweet, rich taste.
Malda Nistari Silk Yarn Known for its fine texture, durability, and the intricate traditional weaving techniques used, Malda Nistari Silk Yarn is produced in Malda, Bengal. This silk is highly sought after for its luxurious feel and is used for making high-quality garments.
Radhunipagal Rice A local variety of rice from Bengal, Radhunipagal is known for its resilient texture and ability to stay filling for extended periods, making it perfect for hearty meals. This rice is a staple in many traditional Bengali dishes.
Baruipur Guava Baruipur Guava, grown in the fertile soil of West Bengal, is known for its distinct taste and texture. The fruit has a sweet flavor and is used in juices, jams, and desserts.
Jammu and Kashmir 

 

 Kashmir Namda A woolen rug from Kashmir, Namda is known for its thick texture and intricate designs. Traditionally crafted by hand using sheep wool, it is prized for its insulating properties and is a significant part of Kashmir’s textile heritage.
Kashmir Gabba A traditional woolen product from Kashmir, Gabba is used in home decor and textiles. It is made using local wool and features intricate handwoven patterns.
Kashmir Willow Bat Kashmir Willow is used for making high-quality cricket bats, known for their lightweight and durable properties, making it a sought-after material for professional cricket bats.
Kashmir Tweed Kashmir Tweed is a finely woven fabric, made from wool, and is renowned for its warmth and luxury. It has been traditionally used to make winter garments, particularly coats and shawls.
Kashmir Crewel A hand-embroidered fabric from Kashmir, Crewel features intricate floral designs and is traditionally used in making home textiles like curtains, bedspreads, and cushions.
Kashmir Chain Stitch A traditional embroidery technique from Kashmir, Chain Stitch is used to create decorative textiles. The embroidery is vibrant, with floral patterns, and is used in making garments and home furnishings.
Kashmir Shikara The Shikara is a traditional boat from Kashmir used primarily for tourism and transportation in the Dal Lake. It is a symbol of Kashmir’s rich heritage and has been part of the region’s culture for centuries.
Kashmir Wagguv Wagguv is a traditional handcrafted product from Kashmir, made using local materials and is known for its unique craftsmanship and cultural significance in the region.

 

[UPSC 2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ Status?

(1) Banaras Brocades and Sarees (2) Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma (3) Tirupathi Laddu

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

PM gifted with a copy of Tripitaka by Thai PM

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Tripitaka

Why in the News?

Prime Minister was presented with ‘The World Tipitaka: Sajjhaya Phonetic Edition’ by his Thai counterpart, Paetongtarn Shinawatra, in a diplomatic exchange.

About Tripitaka

  • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon or Tipitaka, is the primary scripture of Theravada Buddhism, containing the teachings attributed to Buddha.
  • It was initially preserved through oral tradition and recited by Buddhist monks after the Buddha’s death.
  • It was first written down in the 1st century BCE during the reign of King Vattagamani of Sri Lanka, ensuring its preservation for future generations.
  • It is central to Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
  • It is also regarded as an authoritative collection of the Buddha’s words, influencing the practices of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists.
  • Its teachings cover practical aspects of morality (sila), meditation (samadhi), and wisdom (prajna), guiding followers towards nirvana (enlightenment).
  • It is composed of 3 major sections, each known as a “basket” (Pitaka), containing rules, discourses, and doctrinal analyses:
Focus Key Components Key Teachings

Vinaya Pitaka

 Governs the rules and regulations for the monastic community (Sangha), focusing on the conduct of monks and nuns. • Suttavibhanga: The primary text detailing the rules for monks and nuns, including disciplinary measures.

• Khandhaka: A collection of regulations governing the monastic community’s daily life, organizational structure, and interactions.

• Parivara: A summary and analysis of the rules and their interpretations.

• Discusses issues related to ordination, monastic vows, and the ethical conduct of monks and nuns.

 • Establishes a structured framework for maintaining the monastic order.

• Focus on ethical behavior, discipline, and the proper conduct necessary for spiritual growth.

• Importance of the community and the harmonious living of monks and nuns.

Sutta Pitaka

 Contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha, covering various topics like morality, meditation, and wisdom. • Digha Nikaya: The long discourses of the Buddha, including topics on ethics, meditation, and cosmology.

• Majjhima Nikaya: Middle-length discourses, often addressing common people and their concerns, focusing on practical aspects of the Buddha’s teachings.

• Samyutta Nikaya: Connected discourses grouped by topics like impermanence, suffering, and dependent origination.

• Anguttara Nikaya: A collection of numerical discourses, categorized by numbers (e.g., 3, 4, 5), addressing practical guidelines for daily living.

• Khuddaka Nikaya: A minor collection of texts, including the Dhammapada, Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s past lives), Therigatha, and others.

 • Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as central teachings for achieving liberation from suffering.

• Instructions on ethical living, mental cultivation, and the development of wisdom.

• Stories of the Buddha’s past lives, which serve to teach moral lessons and virtues.

• Provides practical teachings for both monastics and laypeople on how to live a life conducive to enlightenment.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

 A detailed systematic analysis of the Buddha’s teachings, providing a philosophical and psychological examination of Buddhist concepts. • Dhammasangani: A classification of mental and physical phenomena, offering an in-depth analysis of mental states and experience.

• Vibhanga: Provides a detailed analysis of various doctrines, including virtues, meditation practices, and psychological states.

• Puggalapannatti: Describes different types of persons and their spiritual progress, from ordinary beings to enlightened ones.

• Kathavatthu: A collection of doctrinal debates that addresses differences between early Buddhist schools, offering clarification on certain teachings.

• Yamaka: A set of questions and answers that explores complex doctrinal points in pairs of opposites.

• Patthana: Describes conditional relations between phenomena, offering a complex framework for understanding dependent origination.

 • Mind and consciousness: Detailed study of the nature of the mind, its states, and interactions with the physical world.

• Causality and the law of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada), explaining how phenomena arise and cease based on conditions.

• Analytical psychology: Explores the workings of the human mind, including perception, cognition, and emotion.

• Explores the relationship between mental and physical processes and provides an advanced understanding of reality and experience.

• Essential for understanding advanced Buddhist philosophy and psychology.

 

[UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

(a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya (d) Lalitavistra

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

15th Century Copper Plates from the Vijayanagara Empire discovered

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire

Why in the News?

A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

About the Sangama Dynasty 

  • The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
  • The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
  • The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.

Notable Rulers

  • Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
  • Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
  • Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
  • Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
  • Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.

Downfall

  • Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
  • The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.

Key Features of the Copper Plates

  • These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
    • The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
  • They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
  • The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Historical Significance:

  • Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
  • It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
[UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?

(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha

 

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