💥UPSC 2026, 2027 UAP Mentorship September Batch

Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Why are Killer Whales offering fresh prey to humans?

Why in the News?

A new study in the Journal of Comparative Psychology documents rare instances of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) sharing freshly killed prey with humans.

Why are Killer Whales offering fresh prey to humans?

About Killer Whales (Orcinus orca):

  • Overview: Largest member of the dolphin family (Delphinidae), often called “wolves of the sea”.
  • Apex predators: At the top of the marine food chain.
  • Physical traits:
    • Black dorsal side, white underside, distinctive eye patch, saddle patch behind dorsal fin.
    • Can grow up to 9 m, weigh over 5,000 kg, and swim up to 54 km/hr.
  • Social structure: Live in pods led by a matriarch; highly coordinated hunters using complex tactics.
  • Distribution: Found in all oceans worldwide, from polar to tropical seas, in both open and coastal waters.
  • IUCN – Data Deficient: But many regional populations face threats from climate change, prey decline, and pollution.

Why do they offer their fresh prey to humans?

  • Study Findings (2004–2024):
    • Killer whales were observed offering whole prey to humans (fish, birds, mammals, etc.) in multiple oceans.
    • In most cases, they waited for a human response before reclaiming or abandoning prey.
  • Possible Reasons:
    • Exploration/Curiosity: Reflects their advanced cognition and social curiosity; a way to learn about humans.
    • Prosocial Behaviour: They are among the few species that share food within and outside their groups.
    • Play Theory Rejected: Behaviour not limited to juveniles; adults also involved, often with whole prey.
    • Scientific Thinking Analogy: Behaviour resembles “asking questions” and testing human reactions — a form of exploratory intelligence.
    • Machiavellian Behaviour: Could sometimes be manipulative, as killer whales are known to steal fish and disrupt vessels.
[UPSC 2023] Which one of the following makes a tool with a stick to scrape insects from a hole in a tree or a log of wood?

Options: (a) Fishing cat (b) Orangutan * (c) Otter (d) Sloth bear

 

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Fireflies emerge as Ecological Indicators

Why in the News?

A recent study in Tamil Nadu documented multiple firefly species and highlighted their role as ecological indicators of habitat health.

About Fireflies and their behaviour traits:

  • Identity: Bioluminescent beetles (not true flies) of the family Lampyridae.
  • Life Cycle: Larvae live in soil/leaf litter feeding on snails and worms; adults emerge after rains and live briefly to reproduce.
  • Indian Species: Abscondita chinensis, Luciola ovalis, Luciola nicolleri, Asymmetricata humeralis, Pyrocoelia analis.
  • Distribution: Found in tropical and temperate regions; most visible on humid monsoon nights.
  • Bioluminescence: Glow produced in abdominal light organ using luciferin, luciferase, oxygen, and ATP.
  • Light Nature: Cold and efficient, colours vary between green and yellow depending on species.
  • Courtship Function: Flashing used as mating signal; males emit species-specific codes, females respond if correct.

Ecological Role and Conservation Significance:

  • Sensitivity: Strongly affected by pesticides, habitat loss, artificial lights, and polluted water.
  • Habitat Health Indicator: Large synchronised gatherings reflect intact ecosystems; sparse numbers signal disturbance.
  • Light Pollution Impact: Artificial lighting disrupts flashing, forcing males to waste energy and reducing mating success.
  • Local Evidences: Communities like the Malasar and Irula report declines linked to pesticides and polluted streams.
  • Indicator Role: Act as proxy species for nocturnal biodiversity, signalling risks to moths, bats, and amphibians.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following shows a unique relationship with an insect that has coevolved with it and that is the only insect that can pollinate this tree?

Options: (a) Fig* (b) Mahua (c) Sandalwood (d) Silk cotton

 

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Police Reforms – SC directives, NPC, other committees reports

Grant of Bail in India

Why in the News?

The US President has stopped federal funds that allowed cashless bail, sparking debate on whether the system is fair to the poor.

Cashless Bail System in the US:

  • Cashless Bail: Removes upfront cash requirement, relying on non-financial conditions like monitoring or appearance assurance.
  • Criticism of Cash Bail: Disadvantages the poor, keeping undertrials jailed for minor offences. Imposes financial strain that may itself push individuals toward further crime.

About Bail Provisions in India (BNSS, 2023, replacing CrPC, 1973):

  • Bail is essentially a mechanism to release an accused from custody with assurances that they will not abscond or tamper with evidence.
  • Governed by Chapter 35 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023.

Types of Bail under BNSS:

  1. Regular Bail:
    • For bailable offences (Sec. 478): Bail is a right.
    • For non-bailable offences (Secs. 480, 483): Bail is at court’s discretion, depending on seriousness of offence, evidence, risk of absconding, and public interest.
  2. Anticipatory Bail (Sec. 482): Pre-arrest bail in non-bailable offences, granted by higher courts with conditions such as no interference in investigation or threats to witnesses.
  3. Interim Bail: Temporary release while a regular or anticipatory bail application is pending.
  4. Statutory/Default Bail (Sec. 187): Accused has the right to bail if chargesheet not filed within the stipulated period.

Bail Mechanisms in Practice:

  • Bond: Accused signs a bond and deposits cash as guarantee; refunded after trial unless terms are violated.
  • Bail Bond: Surety given by another person such as a friend, family member, or employer. Courts verify their documents, financial stability, and residence. In Mumbai, a solvency certificate issued by a revenue officer is required, which delays bail.
  • Personal Recognisance (PR) Bond: Accused released without immediate cash deposit but must arrange money within a specified time. Courts often hesitate to grant PR bonds citing trial integrity.

Challenges in India’s Bail System

  • Undertrials stuck despite bail:
    • Many accused cannot furnish surety or small sums (₹5,000 or less).
    • Maharashtra (2022): 1,600+ persons in jail unable to meet bail conditions; 600 in Mumbai Metropolitan Region alone.
    • Prisons overcrowded: Maharashtra prisons had 12,343 excess prisoners (July 2025).
  • Judicial concerns: 268th Law Commission Report (2017):
    • Monetary bail system is discriminatory & unconstitutional.
    • Violates right to fair trial; leads to arbitrary classifications.
  • Supreme Court (2023 guidelines):
    • If an accused remains in jail >1 week despite bail, jail superintendent must inform District Legal Services Authority (DLSA).
    • DLSA can send para-legal volunteers/lawyers to assist release.
    • Based on NALSA data: ~5,000 undertrials jailed despite bail.
  • Reform under BNSS (2023):
    • Jail authorities must apply for bail for undertrial prisoners who have:
      • Served 1/3 of maximum sentence (first-time offenders).
      • Served 1/2 of maximum sentence (repeat offenders).
    • Not applicable in life imprisonment or death penalty cases.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

1.Judicial custody means an accused is in the custody of the concerned magistrate, and such an accused is locked up in the police station, not in jail.

2.During judicial custody, the police officer in charge of the case is not allowed to interrogate the suspect without the approval of the court.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Policy Wise: India’s Power Sector

[pib] State Energy Efficiency Index, 2024

Why in the News?

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has released the latest edition of State Energy Efficiency Index 2024 (SEEI 2024).

About State Energy Efficiency Index (SEEI), 2024:

  • Released by: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power, in association with Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy (AEEE).
  • Coverage: Assesses 36 States/UTs on energy efficiency performance for FY 2023–24.
  • Framework:
    • 6th edition, implementation-focused.
    • 66 indicators across sectors – Buildings, Industry, Municipal Services, Transport, Agriculture, DISCOMs, Cross-sector.
    • Includes new focus areas: EV adoption, star-rated buildings, Demand Side Management (DSM).
  • Classification:
    • Front Runners (>60%), Achievers (50–60%), Contenders (30–50%), Aspirants (<30%).
    • Top performers: Maharashtra (>15 MToE), Andhra Pradesh (5–15 MToE), Assam (1–5 MToE), Tripura (<1 MToE).
  • Key Highlights:
    • 24 states notified Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC 2017).
    • 31 states adopted EV policies.
    • 13 states promoted solar pumps (Kerala – 74% adoption).
    • All 36 prepared State Energy Efficiency Action Plans (SEEAPs); 31 formed State Energy Transition Committees.
  • Significance: Supports India’s Net Zero 2070 goal by promoting state-level energy transition.

Back2Basics: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE):

  • Established: 1 March 2002, under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Power.
  • Mission: To assist in developing policies & strategies for energy efficiency, with the aim of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy.
  • Functions:
    • Regulatory: Implementation of Energy Conservation Act provisions.
    • Promotional:  Encourage adoption of efficient technologies & practices.
  • Key Achievements:
    • Contributed to 3.5% reduction in India’s overall energy consumption.
    • Implements programmes like Perform, Achieve, Trade (PAT), Standards & Labelling, Energy Efficiency Financing Platform, etc.
[UPSC 2016] On which of the following can you find the Bureau of Energy Efficiency Star Label?

1. Ceiling fans 2. Electric geysers 3. Tubular fluorescent lamps

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Mount Etna Eruption

Why in the News?

Mount Etna has erupted again after its recent eruption in June.

About Mount Etna:

  • Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
  • Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
  • Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
  • Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
  • Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
  • Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).

Reasons Behind the Eruption:

  • Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
    • Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
    • Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
  • Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
[UPSC 2014] Consider the following geological phenomena:

1. Development of a fault

2. Movement along a fault

3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption

4. Folding of rocks Which of the above cause earthquakes?

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

 

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[29th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s demographic dividend as a time bomb

Mentor’s Comment

India’s celebrated demographic dividend, once viewed as a sure path to prosperity, is at risk of turning into a demographic time bomb. The article highlights how an outdated education system, misaligned curricula, lack of skilling, and the AI-driven disruption are threatening the employability of millions of young Indians. With over 800 million citizens below 35, the stakes are immense: India’s future growth, social stability, and global aspirations hinge on whether this youth bulge is transformed into an asset or left to fester as a liability.

Introduction

Demographic dividend refers to the economic growth potential that arises when a country has a larger share of its population in the working-age group compared to dependents. It is essentially the window of opportunity where youth can drive productivity, innovation, and national prosperity. India today stands at such a pivotal moment, with more than half of its population below the age of 35. This unprecedented youth bulge offers a chance to accelerate growth, but whether it becomes a dividend or a disaster depends entirely on how well the country equips its people with education, skills, and employability.

The scale of India’s demographic challenge

  1. Youth bulge: Over 800 million people under 35, one of the world’s largest youth populations.
  2. Graduate glut: India produces millions of graduates annually, but many remain underemployed or unemployable.
  3. Engineering crisis: 40–50% of engineering graduates in the last decade were not placed in jobs.
  4. Employability gap: According to Mercer-Mettl (2025), only 43% of graduates are job-ready.

The impact of Artificial Intelligence on jobs and employability

  1. Automation threat: McKinsey projects 70% of jobs in India could be impacted by automation by 2030.
  2. Task replacement: Nearly 30% of current job tasks will be automated globally.
  3. Job churn: World Economic Forum (WEF) predicts 170 million new jobs by 2030, but 92 million displaced in the same period.
  4. Urgency: India’s curriculum runs on 3-year cycles, too slow compared to fast-moving technology disruptions.

The roots of the education–employment mismatch in schools

  1. Career ignorance: 93% of students (Classes 8–12) are aware of only 7 traditional careers (doctor, engineer, lawyer, teacher).
  2. Career options: The modern economy offers 20,000+ career paths.
  3. Guidance gap: Only 7% of students receive formal career guidance.
  4. Wrong fit: 65% of high school graduates pursue degrees not aligned with their aptitude or market demand.

The shortcomings of India’s skilling missions

  1. Skill India shortfall: Aimed to train 400 million individuals by 2022, but fell short.
  2. Fragmented approach: Policies such as Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKK), Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS), Pradhan Mantri Yuva Yojana (PMYY), Skills Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP), and the Prime Minister’s Internship Scheme have been launched, but they often function in silos without effective integration.
  3. Funding without impact: Large-scale spending has not yielded industry-ready graduates.
  4. Need of the hour: Cohesive, industry-aligned national skilling strategy.

The risks of neglecting the demographic crisis

  1. Economic setback: Risk of educated but unemployable workforce undermining India’s growth.
  2. Social unrest: Historical precedent in the Mandal protests of 1990, where youth frustration erupted violently.
  3. Paradox at scale: As Lant Pritchett noted in Where Has All the Education Gone?, mere schooling without employability worsens the crisis.
  4. Civilizational risk: The crisis is not just about jobs, but about the social contract between state and youth.

Conclusion

India stands at a crossroads. The very youth once seen as its greatest strength may become its Achilles’ heel if the education–employment gap remains unaddressed. The AI revolution makes this transition even more urgent. With the right mix of foresight, reforms, and collaboration between government, private sector, and academia, India can convert its youth bulge into a global competitive advantage. The clock is ticking, the dividend must be harnessed before it explodes into a time bomb.

PYQ Linkage

[UPSC 2016] “Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes more educated, aware, skilled and creative.” What measures have been taken by the government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable?

Linkage: The question emphasizes that India’s demographic dividend will remain theoretical without real improvements in education, awareness, skills, and creativity. This connects with the fact that, despite schemes like Skill India Mission, PMKVY, NEP 2020 and SANKALP, a large share of graduates remain unemployable — with only 43% job-ready and 40–50% of engineering graduates jobless — underscoring the urgent need for aligning skilling with industry demands.

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

[pib] Mahatma Ayyankali (1863–1941)

Why in the News?

On his Jayanti (August 28), PM paid tribute to Mahatma Ayyankali.

About Mahatma Ayyankali:

  • Birth: August 28, 1863, in Venganoor, Travancore (present-day Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala).
  • Community: Belonged to the Pulayar caste, among the most oppressed and excluded groups.
  • Background: Faced severe caste discrimination despite family owning land; denied access to temples, schools, roads, and public spaces.
  • Legacy: Remembered as a Dalit leader of modern Kerala and a pioneer of social justice, education, and labour rights.

Key Reforms and Contributions:

  • Caste Defiance: Famous Villuvandi Yatra (1893) – ox-cart ride on caste-restricted roads, triggering riots but also mass mobilization for Dalit rights.
  • Education Movement: Demanded access for Dalit children to public schools; Travancore government issued 1907 order allowing entry, implemented by 1910.
  • Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham (SJPS): Founded in 1907 to promote Dalit education, legal aid, and social upliftment; expanded into hundreds of branches.
  • Legislative Role: In 1910, became the first Dalit member of the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly (Travancore Legislative Council).
  • Labour Reforms: Fought for higher wages and dignity for agricultural labourers.
  • Social Reforms: Campaigned for Dalit women’s right to cover their upper bodies in public, a practice denied earlier.
  • Temple Entry Movement: Early campaigns from 1895 onwards contributed to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation, ending exclusion of Dalits from temples in Travancore.
  • Recognition: Admired by Mahatma Gandhi, who called him the “Pulaya King”. Indira Gandhi later hailed him as “India’s greatest son”.
[UPSC 2025] Who among the following was the founder of the ‘Self-Respect Movement’?

Options: (a) ‘Periyar’ E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker * (b) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (c) Bhaskarrao Jadhav (d) Dinkarrao Javalkar

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

[pib] Nuakhai Festival

Why in the News?

PM extended wishes to the Odia-speaking communities on the occasion of Nuakhai.

About Nuakhai Festival:

  • Meaning: Derived from “Nua” (new) and “Khai” (food); literally “new food”, marking the first consumption of freshly harvested rice.
  • Region: Celebrated mainly in Western Odisha and also observed in parts of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand by Odia-speaking communities.
  • Significance: Agrarian thanksgiving to deities, ancestors, and the earth; symbol of prosperity, good harvest, and family unity.
  • Date: Observed on Bhadraba Sukla Panchami (5th day after Ganesh Chaturthi).
  • Historical Roots: Traces to Vedic rituals of first grain offerings (Pralambana yajna); formalized in the 14th century by Raja Ramai Deo of Patna State, Sambalpur.
  • Social Role: Strengthens community bonds; people greet with “Nuakhai Juhar”, reconcile disputes, and seek elders’ blessings.

Festivities and Cultural Elements:

  • Preparations: Begin 15 days in advance; involve nine ritual steps (Navaranga) such as fixing the date, cleaning homes, harvesting grain, offering puja, and sharing food.
  • Ritual Practice: Family head or priest performs puja, offering the first grain to the local deity, followed by distribution within the family.
  • Cultural Celebrations: Sambalpuri folk dances like Rasarkeli, Dalkhai, Maelajada, Sajani; folk songs praising harvest and community spirit.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State

1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

Why in the News?

This year marks three decades since the landmark Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which established the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

About United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):

  • Event: Also called the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992).
  • Participation: 178 countries, 117 heads of state, thousands of NGOs and civil society groups.
  • Objective: Reconcile economic growth with environmental protection, mainstreaming sustainable development globally.
  • Key Outcomes:
    • Rio Declaration (27 principles, including precautionary principle & Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)).
    • Agenda 21 (non-binding action plan for sustainable development).
    • UNFCCC (binding treaty on climate change; later Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement).
    • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (binding treaty on biodiversity).
    • Statement of Forest Principles (non-binding guidelines for sustainable forests).
    • Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) created to monitor implementation.
  • Significance: Landmark in international environmental diplomacy, embedding sustainability in global policy and leading to follow-ups (Rio+10, Rio+20).

India and UNCED:

  • Stance & Advocacy:
    • Strongly pushed for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR); developed nations must bear greater responsibility due to historical emissions and resource use.
    • Emphasized poverty eradication and the right to economic growth for developing countries.
    • Called for financial support and technology transfer from developed countries to the Global South.
  • Commitments:
    • Signed & ratified all key Rio agreements: Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD.
  • Domestic Follow-up:
    • Integrated Agenda 21 principles into national policies (sustainable resource use, biodiversity protection, EIAs).
    • Strengthened environmental legislation under the Environment Protection Act (1986).
  • Role: Positioned itself as a voice of developing countries, balancing environment with development imperatives.
[UPSC 2010] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at-

Options:

(a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972

(b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio De Janerio, 1992 *

(c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002

(d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

Why in the News?

ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan announced that the upcoming rocket launching site at Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu) will handle 20–25 satellite launches annually.

Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

About Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

  • Location: Coastal hamlet near Tiruchendur, Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu; inaugurated by PM in February 2024.
  • Second Spaceport: India’s second spaceport after Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 1971).
  • Capacity: Can handle 20–25 launches annually, including 24 launches using a Mobile Launch Structure.
  • Focus: Dedicated to Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs), with capacity to launch rockets up to 500 kg.
  • Facilities: About 35 facilities including launch pad, rocket integration units, ground range, checkout systems, and Mobile Launch Structure with onboard checkout computers.

Advantages offered by Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

  • Direct Southward Launches: Location allows launches into the Indian Ocean without crossing landmasses; ensures more safety from debris fall.
  • No Dogleg Manoeuvre: Unlike Sriharikota, no detour is needed to avoid Sri Lanka, saving fuel.
  • Efficient Trajectory: Improves efficiency for satellites in Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPOs).
  • Payload Advantage: SSLVs from Kulasekarapattinam can place ~300 kg into SSPO, higher than from Sriharikota.
  • Decongestion: Reduces pressure on Sriharikota, which will focus on larger PSLV, GSLV, and Gaganyaan launches.
  • Commercial Boost: Strengthens India’s role in the global small-satellite launch market, enhancing space economy.
  • Strategic Advantage: Near-equator position provides benefits for certain orbital paths.
[UPSC 2008] ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located?

Options: (a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram (c) Mahendragiri* (d) Karwar

 

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Indian Army Updates

[pib] Exercise ‘BRIGHT STAR 2025’

Why in the News?

India is set to participate with over 700 personnel from tri-services for 19th edition of Exercise Bright Star 2025 in Egypt.

About Exercise Bright Star:

  • Origin: Began in 1980 as a US–Egypt bilateral drill after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
  • Nature: Now one of the largest and longest-running multinational tri-service military exercises in the Middle East.
  • Frequency: Held biennially in Egypt with the United States as the principal partner.
  • Objectives:
    • Enhance regional security and stability.
    • Improve jointness, interoperability, and operational coordination among partner nations.

Key Highlights of the 2025 Edition:

  • Scale: Approximate 7,900 troops from 43 nations.
    • 13 countries directly deploying troops.
    • 30 countries participating as observers.
  • Strategic Significance:
    • Builds defence cooperation between India, Egypt, US, and partner nations.
    • Important amid West Asia, Red Sea, and Gulf security challenges.
[UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

Select the answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

Why in the News?

A recent IIT Indore study shows that climate change has caused a 10% shrinkage in the Gangotri Glacier System over four decades, altering snowmelt and hydrology.

Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

About Gangotri Glacier System (GGS):

  • Location: Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, in the Central Garhwal Himalayas.
  • Origin: Near the Chaukhamba massif at ~7,000 metres above sea level.
  • Size: Main trunk 30–32 km long, 2–4 km wide, with a total glacierized area of ~252 sq. km.
  • Snout: Known as Gaumukh (“cow’s mouth”), source of the Bhagirathi River, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
  • Tributaries: Includes Chaturangi, Raktavarn, Meru, Rudugaira, Kedar, and Vasuki glaciers.
  • Type: Valley-type glacier with granite, gneiss, and schist bedrock.
  • Features: Moraines, supraglacial lakes, crevasses, and avalanche fans.
  • Debris Cover: 20–24% of the glacier area is debris-covered, affecting melting rates.

Key Findings of the IIT Indore Study (1980–2020):

  • Flow Contribution: Snowmelt 64%, glacier melt 21%, rainfall-runoff 11%, base flow 4%.
  • Decline in Snowmelt Share: From 73% in 1980–90 to 63% in 2010–20, reflecting climate change impact.
  • Temperature Rise: Mean annual temperature increased by 0.5°C in 2001–2020 compared to 1980–2000.
  • Shift in Peak Discharge: From August to July since the 1990s due to earlier melting and reduced winter precipitation.
  • Snowmelt Rebound: During 2010–2020, colder winters (–2°C) and higher winter precipitation (262 mm) increased snow accumulation.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following pairs:

Glacier: River

1. Bandarpunch -Yamuna

2. Bara Shigri -Chenab

3. Milam -Mandakini

4. Siachen -Nubra

5. Zemu -Manas

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

Why in the News?

SpaceX’s Starship has completed its first fully successful test flight after a series of failures.

SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

About SpaceX Starship:

  • Design: A two-stage heavy-lift launch vehicle built to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
  • Developer: SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, with the vision of enabling interplanetary travel and colonisation.
  • Size: Nearly 120 metres tall with booster, making it the largest rocket ever built and flown. Taller than Saturn V (111 m) and India’s Qutub Minar (72.5 m).
  • Historic Test Flight: On 27 August 2025, achieved its first fully successful flight. Booster splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico, spacecraft reached the Indian Ocean.
  • Role in NASA Missions: Critical to Artemis Program for returning humans to the Moon and later missions to Mars.
  • Long-term Goal: Make Starship fully and rapidly reusable, cutting costs and redefining space travel.

Key Features of Starship:

  • Two-Stage Rocket System:
    • Super Heavy booster powered by 33 Raptor engines generating 74 meganewtons of thrust, nearly double NASA’s SLS and twice Saturn V.
    • Engines burn liquid oxygen and methane, enabling deep-space use and Mars resource utilisation.
    • Booster fully reusable, capable of atmospheric re-entry and recovery.
    • Six Raptor engines and four landing fins, designed for full reusability on long-duration missions.
  • Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 150 tonnes to Low-Earth Orbit and over 100 tonnes to the Moon and Mars, more than all soft-landed lunar payloads combined.
  • Cost Reduction Potential: Estimated to deliver 100 tonnes of cargo to Mars for ~$50 million, compared to NASA Shuttle’s $1.5 billion per launch with far less payload.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:

I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan

How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None

 

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

Samudrayaan Mission

Why in the News?

Two Indian aquanauts dived over 5,000 m in the Atlantic aboard French vessel Nautile, as part of India’s Samudrayaan Mission.

What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?

  • Approved: 2021 by the Union Cabinet, with a budget of ₹4,077 crore for 5 years.
  • Aim: Explore, conserve, and sustainably use deep-ocean resources to support India’s Blue Economy.
  • Six Components:
    • Develop technologies for deep-sea mining, submersibles, and robotics.
    • Ocean climate change advisory service with observations + predictive models.
    • Deep-sea biodiversity exploration and conservation.
    • Surveys for polymetallic nodules and minerals.
    • Energy & freshwater extraction technologies from oceans.
    • Advanced Marine Station for ocean biology & engineering → to bridge research & industry.

About Samudrayaan Mission:

  • Nature: India’s first crewed deep-sea exploration mission.
  • Objective: To send 3 humans up to 6,000 m depth into the central Indian Ocean by 2027.
  • Vehicle: Crewed submersible Matsya-6000 (fish-shaped, 2.1 m personal sphere).
    • Capacity: 3 aquanauts.
    • Endurance: 12 hours normal + 96 hours emergency life support.
    • Material: Titanium alloy sphere (80 mm thickness) to withstand ~600x atmospheric pressure.
  • Coordinating Agency: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Ministry of Earth Sciences.
  • Strategic Significance: Will place India among a select group of countries (US, Russia, China, Japan, France) with human deep-sea exploration capability.

Progress made so far:

  • Aquanaut Training: Discussed above.
  • Matsya-6000 Development:
    • Successfully wet tested in Feb 2025.
    • Titanium alloy sphere fabrication ongoing at ISRO using electron beam welding.
    • Initial steel test sphere used for 500 m trials.
  • Technology Development:
    • Indigenous acoustic telephone built for underwater communication (works in open ocean after initial failures).
    • Life-support systems designed to maintain 20% oxygen and scrub CO₂.
  • Next Steps:
    • Human test dive at 500 m depth planned before full 6,000 m mission.
    • Full Samudrayaan launch targeted by 2027.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

1.The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

2.India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

 

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Urban Floods

Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab

Why in the news?

Floods hit Punjab villages due to heavy rain in Himachal, high dam discharges (Bhakra, Pong, Ranjit Sagar), and regulated headworks flow.

Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab

About the Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab:

River Origin & Entry into Punjab Major Dam (Location & Key Facts) Headworks & Functions
Sutlej Origin: Rakshastal Lake (Tibet); enters India at Shipki La (HP); enters Punjab at Rupnagar; joins Beas at Harike, then Chenab in Pakistan. Bhakra Dam (near Nangal, HP–Punjab border).

One of India’s highest gravity dams; reservoir = Gobind Sagar Lake; irrigation + hydropower.

Ropar: Feeds Sirhind & BML canals (Punjab + Haryana).

Harike: Diverts Sutlej–Beas water to Rajasthan & Punjab canals.

Hussainiwala: Feeds Bikaner & Eastern Canals (Punjab + Rajasthan).

Beas Origin: Beas Kund (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Mukerian (Hoshiarpur); flows via Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Tarn Taran, Amritsar. Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar), HP (Kangra).

Major irrigation + power dam; supplies Harike.

Harike: Regulates Beas + Sutlej water; feeds Rajasthan & Punjab canals.
Ravi Origin: Bara Banghal (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Pathankot; flows via Pathankot, Gurdaspur;

Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab.

Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam), Pathankot (Punjab–J&K border). Irrigation + hydropower. Madhopur: Feeds UBDC canal (Punjab).

Madhopur–Beas Link: Transfers surplus Ravi to Beas before Pakistan.

 

[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus river system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:

Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej*

 

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Monsoon Updates

Mawsynram and Cherrapunji no longer Wettest Places in India

Why in the News?

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram have recorded about 50% below normal rainfall this year.

About the Wettest Places in India:

  • Cherrapunji (Sohra, East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) and Mawsynram (same district) are globally known as the wettest places on Earth.
  • Average annual rainfall: ~11,000–12,000 mm.
  • World record events:
    • Highest annual rainfall: Mawsynram holds the record for highest annual rainfall.
    • Heaviest rainfall: Cherrapunji recorded 2,493 mm in 48 hours (June 1995), one of the heaviest rainfalls ever documented.

Comparative Rainfall Data (for 2025 Monsoon Season):

  • Cherrapunji (Sohra): ~3,500 mm (≈50% deficit from normal).
  • Surlabbi (Kodagu, Karnataka): ~7,300 mm (highest in India this year).
  • Tamhini (Maharashtra): 5,788 mm (June–July).
  • Trend: At least 32 stations across India received more rainfall than Cherrapunji in June–July 2025.
  • Historical Low for Sohra: 5,401 mm in 1962 → 2025 may break this record if deficit continues.

Why Mawsynram /Cherrapunji receive such high rainfall?

  • Geographical Location: Lies on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills, directly facing the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon.
  • Orographic Effect: Moist monsoon winds hit the steep hills, rise rapidly, and cause heavy orographic rainfall.
  • Monsoon Duration: Receives rainfall almost continuously from June to September, with frequent cloudbursts.
  • Topography: Steep hills + valleys act as a trap for moisture-laden winds, leading to intense rainfall concentration.
  • Climatic Setting: Part of the Humid Subtropical/Monsoonal climate zone of Northeast India, with high moisture inflow.
[UPSC 2015] Consider the following States:

1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Himachal Pradesh 3. Mizoram

In which of the above States do ‘Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests’ occur?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

[pib] India hosts 3GPP RAN Working Group Meetings on 6G Standardization

Why in the News?

The Telecommunications Standards Development Society (TSDI) of India has hosted the 3GPP Radio Access Networks (RAN1–RAN5) Working Group Meetings focusing on 6G standardization for the first time, in Bengaluru.

About 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project):

  • Overview: Global body established in 1998 for mobile telecom standards (2G → 6G).
  • Partners: Collaboration of ARIB (Japan), ATIS (USA), CCSA (China), ETSI (Europe), TSDSI (India), TTA (South Korea), and TTC (Japan).
  • Output: Publishes technical specifications, forming the global benchmark for telecom operators, equipment makers, and regulators.
  • Focus Areas:
    1. RAN (Radio Access Network) – towers & radios connecting users to the network.
    2. Core Network – switching, routing, internet connectivity.
    3. Services & System Aspects – apps, charging, security.

What is RAN (Radio Access Network)?

  • Definition: The wireless part of a mobile network that links user devices (phones, IoT) to the core network using radio waves.
  • Components:
    • Base Stations (Node B in 3G, eNodeB in 4G, gNodeB in 5G).
    • Antennas & radios.
    • Controllers (e.g., RNC in 3G).
  • Functions:
    • Transmits & receives radio signals.
    • Allocates spectrum.
    • Manages coverage, speed, call/data quality, and handovers.
  • Importance: Defines network performance (speed, latency, capacity).
  • 3GPP RAN Working Groups (RAN1–RAN5): Develop physical layer, radio protocols, performance testing, ensuring smooth migration from 4G → 5G → 6G.

Back2Basics:  Evolution of Mobile Standards

  • 3G (UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): Introduced in early 2000s; based on WCDMA; enabled video calls, MMS, and mobile internet (up to 2 Mbps).
  • 4G (LTE – Long-Term Evolution): All-IP, OFDMA-based; provided high-speed broadband (hundreds of Mbps), VoLTE, and seamless video streaming.
  • 5G (NR – New Radio): Flexible OFDM-based; delivers ultra-high speeds (Gbps), ultra-low latency, supports IoT, automation, AR/VR, and network slicing.
  • 6G (Sixth Generation – under research): Expected by ~2030; aims for terabit-class speeds, AI-native networking, holographic communication, and satellite–terrestrial integration.

 

[UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?

1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.

2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Discovery of Rare Quadruple Star System with Brown Dwarfs

Why in the News?

Scientists have identified UPM J1040−3551 AabBab, a rare quadruple star system with two brown dwarfs orbiting two red dwarfs.

Discovery of Rare Quadruple Star System with Brown Dwarfs

About UPM J1040−3551 AabBab:

  • Overview: Newly discovered quadruple star system in the Milky Way.
  • Composition: Two cold T-type brown dwarfs orbiting a pair of young red dwarf stars.
  • Uniqueness: First known system of its kind; extremely rare as brown dwarfs usually exist alone, with less than 5% chance of companions.
  • Significance: Offers new insights into the formation and evolution of low-mass stars and sub-stellar objects.

What are Brown Dwarfs?

  • Overview: Celestial objects between stars and planets in characteristics.
  • Formation: Form like stars from collapsing gas and dust but lack sufficient mass for sustained hydrogen fusion.
  • Nickname: Often called “failed stars” due to absence of sustained nuclear fusion.
  • Mass Range: Can reach up to about 70 times the mass of Jupiter.
  • Atmosphere: Similar to gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, with molecules and water vapor clouds.
  • Detection: Very faint and cold; usually identified in multiple-star systems where brighter stars help estimate their properties.
  • Astronomical Importance: Help define the boundary between stars and planets; provide clues to conditions necessary for stellar and planetary formation.
  • Cosmological Role: Studying their abundance and distribution aids in understanding mass distribution in the universe and connections to dark matter.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Giant stars live much longer than dwarf stars.

Statement-II: Compared to dwarf stars, giant stars have a greater rate of nuclear reactions.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct*

 

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First Human Case of New World Screwworm in US

Why in the News?

The US authorities have reported the first human case of the flesh-eating parasite, the New World screwworm.

About New World Screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax):

  • Overview: Called “man-eater” larvae in Latin; South America and the Caribbean.
  • Larval Stage: Eggs hatch into maggots that burrow into wounds of warm-blooded animals (including humans) and feed on living flesh in a screw-like motion.
  • Life Cycle: After feeding, larvae fall to soil, pupate, and emerge as adult Blue-grey blowfly.
  • Human Infestation (Myiasis): Causes painful non-healing wounds, bleeding, foul odour, sensation of movement; may lead to sepsis or death if untreated.
  • Eradication in USA: Eliminated in 1966 using Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) by mass release of sterile males.

Current Spread and Concerns:

  • Recent Outbreaks: Detected in Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras.
  • Cause of Spread: Likely linked to movement of infested cattle across regions.
  • Possible Weakness in SIT: Current strain of sterilized flies may be less effective than earlier strains.
  • New Human Case: First travel-associated screwworm myiasis reported in the United States in 2025.
  • Livestock Threat: Serious danger to cattle industry; risk of animal suffering and economic loss.
  • Biosecurity Risk: Reemergence could undo decades of eradication efforts if uncontrolled.
[UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Origins of the modern Ganesh Chaturthi Festival 

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

How did the Public Ganesh Chaturthi Festival Start?

  • May 1894: Governor George Robert Canning Harris issued a circular regulating music in religious processions in Poona with a communal bias.
  • July 1894: During the palkhi procession of saints Dnyanoba & Tukaram, disturbances occurred near a dargah in Poona.
  • Newspapers (Kalpataru, Mumbai Vaibhav, Indu Prakash, Deenbandhu, Subodh Patrika) urged people to reduce participation in Moharram that year.
  • July 22, 1894: Reports indicated preparations for Ganesh Chaturthi on a larger public scale in Poona.
  • September 13, 1894: For the first time, large Ganesh idols were taken out in public processions with immersion ceremonies, modeled on the style of tabut processions.
  • Press Accounts: The Times of India and The Mahratta noted the transformation of Ganpati celebrations from private household worship to community-wide public processions.

Role of Lokmanya Tilak:

  • Newspapers:
    • Through Kesari (Marathi) and The Mahratta (English), Lokmanya Tilak promoted Ganpati as a social and cultural festival.
  • 1894–95: Advocated that the festival be used to foster unity and collective identity.
  • September 1895 (Kesari editorial): Stated that a nation requires common laws, a common language, and a shared cultural identity.
  • Contribution:
    • Popularised Ganesh Chaturthi as a community celebration, open to all sections of society.
    • Created a platform for mass participation, bridging the gap between political movements (Congress) and ordinary people.
  • Impact: Helped transform Ganesh Chaturthi into an instrument of socio-political mobilisation, while retaining its religious character.
[UPSC 2016] What was the main reason for the split in the Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907?

Options: (a) Introduction of communalism into Indian politics b Lord Minto

(b) Extremists’ lack of faith in the capacity of the moderates to negotiate with the British Government*

(c) Foundation of Muslim League

(d) Aurobindo Ghosh’s inability to the elected as the President of the Indian National Congress

 

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