Why in the News?
The Planetary Health Check (PHC) 2025 has warned that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached.
About Planetary Health Check (PHC):
- The PHC is a global scientific assessment of Earth system health, tracking ecological thresholds that keep the planet habitable.
- The 2025 report warns that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached, with ocean acidification crossing the safe zone for the first time.
- It highlights how human activities — fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, and industrial waste — are driving Earth beyond its safe operating space for the first time in 11,000 years.
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What are Planetary Boundaries?
- Proposition: Coined in 2009 by scientists led by Johan Rockstrom.
- What are they: Defines safe operating space for humanity by setting ecological thresholds that regulate Earth system stability and resilience.
- Basis: Based on Holocene conditions (last ~11,000 years) that enabled human civilisation to thrive.
- Significance: Crossing boundaries risks irreversible environmental collapse.
-
Nine Planetary Boundaries (PBs):
-
- Climate Change (CO₂ Concentration & Radiative Forcing): Safe atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) level: 350 parts per million (ppm). Current: 423 ppm (2025); radiative forcing at +2.97 Watts per square meter (W/m²) (safe: +1.5 W/m²).
- Biosphere Integrity (Biodiversity Loss / Extinction Rate): Extinction rate at 100 extinctions per million species years (E/MSY) vs safe 10 E/MSY; severe biodiversity decline continues.
- Land System Change (Deforestation / Ecosystem Conversion): Global forest cover reduced to 59% (safe: 75%). All major terrestrial biomes breached.
- Freshwater Change (Streamflow & Soil Moisture Deviations): Over 20% of global land shows significant streamflow (22.6%) and soil moisture (22%) deviations beyond thresholds. Indo-Gangetic Plain & North China basins most at risk.
- Biogeochemical Flows (Nitrogen & Phosphorus Cycles): Excessive use of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) in agriculture, worsening dead zones and eutrophication in water bodies.
- Novel Entities (Synthetic Pollutants & Plastics): Release of plastics, synthetic chemicals, and untested compounds exceeds the safe zero-threshold for environmental introduction.
- Ocean Acidification (Aragonite Saturation State): Surface ocean acidity has increased by 30–40% since the industrial era. Aragonite saturation state (Aragonite) at 2.84 (safe: 2.86). Threatens corals, molluscs, and plankton.
- Atmospheric Aerosol Loading (Aerosol Optical Depth – AOD) [Currently Safe]: Interhemispheric Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) difference: 0.063, below safe threshold 0.10. Still harmful for health despite planetary stability.
- Stratospheric Ozone Depletion (Ozone Concentration in Dobson Units – DU) [Currently Safe]: Global ozone concentration stable at 285–286 Dobson Units (DU) (safe: 277 DU). Ozone hole recovery continues, though new threats flagged from rocket launches and satellite debris.
| [UPSC 2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:
(a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals.
(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth.
(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops.
(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change. |
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Why in the News?
For the first time, researchers at the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat in arid land of western Rajasthan using desert soilification technology.
What is Desert Soilification Technology?
- Overview: It is an innovative biotechnological method that transforms barren desert sand into soil-like material capable of supporting agriculture.
- Technology: It uses bioformulations and polymers to bind loose sand particles, improve soil texture, and enable water retention.
- Utility: It is designed to combat desertification, enhance agricultural productivity in arid zones, and ensure sustainable land use.
- How does it work?
- Polymer-based Bioformulation: Natural polymers and microbial formulations are applied to desert sand.
- Cross-Linking of Sand Particles: Bio-polymers create a structural network, binding sand grains together into a soil-like matrix.
- Water Retention: The cross-linked structure traps water, drastically reducing irrigation needs and preventing rapid percolation of water through sandy soil.
- Microbial Boost: Introduced beneficial microbes stimulate plant growth, improve soil fertility, and enhance stress resistance of crops.
- Soil-like Properties: The modified sand mimics fertile soil — enabling nutrient retention, microbial colonization, and sustainable cropping.
Key Features:
- Sand-to-Soil Conversion: Cross-links sand particles into a soil-like structure, creating porosity and root-holding capacity.
- Water Retention Efficiency: Increases moisture-holding ability of sand, thereby reducing irrigation requirements by 30–40%.
- Microbial Boost: Bioformulation stimulates beneficial soil microbes, enhancing nutrient cycling and crop stress resistance.
- Crop Versatility: Tested successfully with wheat, bajra, guar gum, chickpea, and is now being expanded to millets and green gram.
- Low Input Agriculture: Reduces number of irrigation cycles (3–4 vs 5–6 in normal wheat farming).
- Climate Resilience: Provides a sustainable model for food production in water-stressed and desertified regions.
- Scalability: Can be replicated in other arid ecosystems beyond Rajasthan (potential use in Middle East, Africa).
| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following best describes the concept of ‘Small Farmer Large Field’?
(a) Resettling war-displaced people on shared cultivable land
(b) Marginal farmers group to coordinate farm operations *
(c) Marginal farmers lease land collectively to a corporate
(d) A company funds and guides farmers to grow required crops |
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Why in the News?
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power has issued draft CAFE-3 and CAFE-4 norms, applicable from April 2027 to March 2037.
About Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms:
- What is it: Standards that mandate automakers to maintain a sales-weighted fleet average of fuel efficiency and CO₂ emissions across all passenger vehicles.
- Origin:
- First introduced in the United States in 1975 after the Arab Oil Embargo, aimed at lowering oil dependency.
- In India, first notified in 2017 under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, framed by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
- Objective:
- Reduce CO₂ emissions and oil imports, improve energy security.
- Push adoption of EVs, hybrids, flex-fuels, and fuel-efficient technologies.
- Applicability: Passenger vehicles (< 3,500 kg gross vehicle weight) across petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrid, and electric categories.
- Phased Implementation in India:
- CAFE I (2017–2022) → CO₂ emission limit of 130 g/km.
- CAFE II (2022–2027) → stricter limit of 113 g/km.
- CAFE III (Draft, 2027–2032) → 91.7 g/km CO₂ limit, aligned with WLTP (World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure).
- CAFE IV (Draft, 2032–2037) → 70 g/km CO₂ limit (most stringent stage yet).
- Recent Updates (Draft CAFE-3 & CAFE-4, Sept 2025):
- Automakers allowed to form pools of up to 3 manufacturers.
- Pooling treated as one fleet for compliance; pool manager bears penalty if limits breached.
- A manufacturer can join only one pool per year but can switch in later years.
- Special relief for small cars (under 4m, <909 kg, <1200 cc): eligible for up to 9 g/km CO₂ relief.
- Incentives for flex-fuel vehicles (ethanol-petrol blends) and strong hybrids alongside EVs.
- Aim: Balance decarbonisation with consumer affordability and revive the small car segment (which saw 71% sales decline in 6 years).
- Compliance & Penalties:
- Exceeding CO₂ limits: Regulatory fines under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
- CAFE credits may be earned, traded, or carried forward to offset temporary lapses.
- Green Impact:
- Complements India’s Net Zero 2070 goals.
- Encourages fuel-efficient models, biofuels, and EV adoption.
How are CAFE Norms different from Bharat Stage (BS) Norms?
|
CAFE Norms |
Bharat Stage (BS) Norms |
| Full Form |
Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency |
Bharat Stage Emission Standards |
| Primary Focus |
Fleet-wide fuel efficiency & CO₂ emissions |
Individual vehicle toxic exhaust pollutants (NOx, PM, CO, HC, SOx) |
| Objective |
Reduce oil imports, improve energy efficiency, cut CO₂ |
Reduce air pollution & public health risks |
| Regulating Authority |
BEE, Ministry of Power (Energy Conservation Act, 2001) |
MoEFCC & CPCB |
| Scope |
Passenger vehicles (<3,500 kg GVW; petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrids, EVs) |
Mainly ICE vehicles; tailpipe pollutants from petrol & diesel |
| Parameters Measured |
Fleet average CO₂ (g/km) |
Pollutants: NOx, CO, PM, HC, SOx |
| Basis of Measurement |
Sales-weighted fleet average across all models |
Individual vehicle emissions tested |
| Phases in India |
CAFE I (2017–22: 130 g/km) → CAFE II (2022–27: 113 g/km) → Draft CAFE III (2027–32: 91.7 g/km) → Draft CAFE IV (2032–37: 70 g/km) |
BS-I (2000) → BS-II (2005) → BS-III (2010) → BS-IV (2017) → BS-VI (2020; leapfrogged BS-V) |
| Testing Standard |
Fuel efficiency & CO₂ per km (lab-tested, WLTP cycle for future) |
Pollutant emissions measured under regulated driving cycles |
| Impact on Industry |
Forces OEMs to balance fleet mix (e.g., SUVs offset by EVs/hybrids) |
Forces OEMs to adopt clean fuel & emission-control tech (e.g., DPF, SCR) |
| Penalties |
Heavy fines for fleet CO₂ non-compliance; penalties apply to pool manager in pooled fleets |
Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold; penalties & recalls |
| Global Parallel |
U.S. CAFE norms (1975) |
Euro emission standards |
| [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution?
1. Automobile exhaust 2. Tobacco smoke 3. Wood burning 4. Using varnished wooden furniture 5. Using products made of polyurethane
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only * (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has imposed a penalty of ₹2,00,000 FirstCry for false and misleading price representations on its e-commerce platform.
Background of the Case: You Must Know
- Complaint: Products were displayed with the claim “MRP inclusive of all taxes,” but additional GST was levied at checkout.
- Effect: Misled consumers by showing higher discounts than actually offered.
- Findings:
- A product advertised at 27% discount was effectively sold at 18.2% discount after GST.
- Such pricing amounted to misleading advertisements (Section 2(28)) and unfair trade practices (Section 2(47)).
- Dark Pattern: The practice qualified as “drip pricing”, a dark pattern under the Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark Patterns, 2023.
- Violation of E-Commerce Rules: Contravened Rule 7(1)(e) of Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, which mandates displaying the total price inclusive of all charges and taxes upfront.
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About Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA):
- Established: Under Section 10 of Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (effective July 20, 2020).
- Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution.
- Functions & Powers:
- Protects and enforces consumer rights as a class.
- Prevents unfair trade practices and misleading advertisements.
- Can initiate class-action suits (recalls, refunds, license cancellation).
- Investigates through Investigation Wing headed by a Director-General.
- Can order discontinuation of unfair practices and impose penalties.
- Composition of CCPA: Chief Commissioner (Head); 2 Commissioners-
- One for goods-related issues.
- One for services-related complaints.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following organizations/bodies in India:
1. The National Commission for Backward Classes
2. The National Human Rights Commission
3. The National Law Commission
4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
How many of the above are constitutional bodies?
(a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
Iran’s supreme leader recently said Tehran has limited uranium enrichment to 60% U-235 and will not pursue further enrichment to ~90% (weapons grade).
About Uranium Enrichment:
- What is it: The process of increasing the proportion of U-235 isotope in uranium samples. Natural uranium has only 0.7% U-235, while the rest is mostly U-238.
- Types of Enrichment:
- Low-Enriched Uranium (3–5%): Used in civilian nuclear power reactors.
- Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU, >20%): At 90%+ enrichment, uranium becomes weapons-grade, usable for efficient nuclear weapons.
- Methods: Physical separation methods such as gas centrifuges, requiring advanced infrastructure and technology.
- Implications:
- Low enrichment: Controlled power generation.
- High enrichment: Proliferation risks, shorter path to nuclear weapons capability.
Controversy about Iran’s Pursuit:
- Declared Program: Iran enriches uranium to 60% U-235, claiming peaceful purposes, but insists it will not pursue 90%+ enrichment.
- Global Concerns:
- Civilian irrelevance: 60% has no reactor use, only shortens the “breakout time” to weapons-grade.
- IAEA Monitoring: International Atomic Energy Agency reports show significant 60% stockpiles, heightening suspicion.
- Geopolitical Context:
- Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) capped enrichment at 3.67% but collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 2018.
- Western governments see 60% enrichment as undermining trust, while Iran argues it is a deterrence and bargaining tool.
- Strategic Dimension: Keeps Iran on the nuclear threshold, enabling leverage in negotiations and projecting deterrence without overt weaponisation.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.
Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect *
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct |
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Why in the News?
The Coffee Board of India has launched extensive awareness and capacity-building programmes to help coffee growers register on its mobile application for EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) compliance.
What are EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)?
- About: Effective from June 2023; Prevent imported products like coffee, cocoa, palm oil, soy, rubber, cattle, wood (and derivatives) from being linked to deforestation.
-
Requirements:
- Proof of production on non-deforested land (post-2020).
- Mandatory due diligence statement with geo-coordinates.
- Penalties: Non-compliance may attract fines up to 4% of EU turnover, seizure of products, and temporary bans.
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About Coffee Board of India:
- Establishment: In 1942 under the Coffee Act, Section 4; Functions under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Headquartered at Bengaluru, Karnataka.
- Structure: A statutory organisation comprising 33 members, with the Chairperson/CEO appointed by the Government of India.
- Focus areas: Research, Extension, Development, Market Intelligence, Export Promotion, Domestic Promotion.
- Early years: Coffee marketing was under the pooling system until 1995, after which liberalisation shifted marketing to the private sector.
- Initiatives: Runs promotional campaigns like India Coffee, Walk With Coffee, and awareness on EUDR compliance for exports.
Back2Basics: Coffee Cultivation in India:
- Overview: Coffee introduced in 1600 AD by Baba Budan in Chikmagalur, Karnataka.
- Geographical Spread: Grown in the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and in smaller areas of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Northeast India.
- Production Share: Karnataka ~ 70%, Kerala ~ 20%, Tamil Nadu ~ 7%.
- Agro-climatic Conditions: Requires 16°–28°C temperature, 150–250 cm rainfall, and well-drained slopes; sensitive to frost, dry spells, and harsh sunlight.
- Soil: Grows best in laterite soils of Karnataka and rich, well-drained loams.
-
Varieties:
- Arabica: Mild aromatic flavour, high export value, but more susceptible to pests/diseases.
- Robusta: Hardy, disease-resistant, stronger taste, higher yields.
- Liberica: Rare, niche cultivation.
- Seasonality: Coffee exports peak during March–June.
- Domestic Consumption: Rising gradually; Coffee Board promoting events like International Coffee Day (October 1) to increase per capita intake.
Production Statistics (2025-26):
- India’s coffee production: It is projected at a record 4.03 lakh tonnes in 2025 up 11% from last year’s 363,000 tonnes.
- Arabica output forecast: 118,000 tonnes, up 12% year-on-year.
- Robusta output forecast: 285,000 tonnes, up 9.5%.
- Karnataka contributes ~70% of output, followed by Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
- India is the world’s 7th largest producer and 5th largest exporter, contributing 3.5% of global production and 5% of global exports.
- Exports: Reached $1.8 billion in 2024-25, a 125% growth over 11 years (from $800 million in 2014-15).
- Around 70% of Indian coffee is exported, mainly to Europe (Italy, Germany, Belgium), the Middle East, Japan, and Korea.
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| [UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements :
1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.
2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.
4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.
Which of the statements given above are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 * |
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Why in the News?
The prehistoric geoglyphs of the Konkan coast may date back as far as 24,000 years, based on new stratigraphic evidence from Koloshi caves in Maharashtra.
About Konkan Geoglyphs:
- Overview: Prehistoric rock engravings (geoglyphs/petroglyphs) carved on laterite plateaus of the Konkan coast (Maharashtra, Goa, southern Karnataka).
- Depictions: Humans, animals (elephants, tigers, rhinos, stingrays, turtles, peacocks), and abstract motifs.
- Technique: Created by scooping, etching, pecking into laterite; grooves 3–5 cm deep, 3–4 cm wide.
- Unique Feature: Unlike painted caves (e.g., Bhimbetka), these are open-air geoglyphs, rare in India.
- Cultural Value: Provide insights into prehistoric ecology, rituals, and transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies.
Important Sites:
- Maharashtra (Ratnagiri–Sindhudurg): Ratnagiri alone hosts 1,500+ carvings across 210 sq. km.
- Kasheli: Giant elephant (13×18 m), 125+ carvings of sharks, stingrays, rhinos (though locally absent), tigers.
- Barsu: Human figure flanked by two tigers, resembling Harappan seals. Local are protesting a proposed oil refinery which might demolish this site.
- Rundhye Tali: Concentric circles, abstract motifs, jellyfish/tiger outlines.
- Devache Gothane: Standing human figure; linked to magnetic deflection anomaly.
- Devi Hasol: Snake-like square design (8 m); still part of Aryadurga temple rituals.
- Jambharun, Ukshi, Kudopi: Faunal + abstract petroglyphs.
- Goa:
- Usgalimal (Phansaymal): Bulls, deer, spirals, cup marks, grinding grooves.
History and Antiquity:
- Dating: Traditionally ~10,000 years old; new excavations at Koloshi caves push age back to 24,000 years (cultural layers ~38,000 years).
- Continuity: Geoglyph-making persisted till the early historic period, showing ritual and symbolic evolution.
- Ecological Record: Depict species long extinct in Konkan (rhinoceros, hippopotamus), indicating Pleistocene fauna.
- World Context: Compared with Nazca Lines (Peru), Atacama Giant (Chile), and Blythe Intaglios (US) — Konkan geoglyphs are smaller but more intricate and ecologically detailed.
- UNESCO Status: On India’s Tentative List (2022); nomination under preparation for 2027–28 cycle.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
The Delhi government is planning to trial cloud-seeding to trigger artificial rain to combat air pollution ahead of winters.
About Cloud Seeding:
- About: It is a microclimate management technique aimed at altering precipitation patterns by dispersing substances into clouds to stimulate rainfall or snowfall.
- Why it is used: It is used to mitigate hail, disperse fog, and either induce precipitation or prevent it from occurring in subsequent days.
- Techniques include:
- Static Cloud Seeding: Chemicals are introduced into cold clouds already containing supercooled water droplets, encouraging the formation of ice crystals.
- Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding: Salts are sprayed into the base of warm clouds to act as condensation nuclei, increasing the number and size of water droplets.
- Dynamic Cloud Seeding: This method involves boosting vertical air currents to enhance moisture passage through the clouds, leading to more rain.
- Common Cloud Seeding Chemicals:
- Silver iodide (AgI): Preferred for its ice-like crystalline properties.
- Potassium iodide (KI): Functions similarly to silver iodide.
- Dry ice (solid CO₂): Used to rapidly cool cloud droplets, aiding rain formation.
- Liquid propane: Used in specific cloud types, effective at higher temperatures.
- Sodium chloride and calcium chloride: Used in hygroscopic (warm) cloud seeding methods.
- Bismuth tri-iodide (BiI₃): Sometimes used based on experimental or environmental considerations.
- Dispersion methods range from aircraft and ground-based generators to newer approaches like drones delivering electric charges or infrared laser pulses.
Limitations:
- Concerns persist regarding the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems, although detailed studies have shown negligible impacts.
- The chemicals used, such as silver iodide, may potentially damage the environment and cause health issues like iodine poisoning in high concentrations
| [UPSC 2025] Artificial way of causing rainfall to reduce air pollution makes use of:
(a) silver iodide and potassium iodide *
(b) silver nitrate and potassium iodide
(c) silver iodide and potassium nitrate
(d) silver nitrate and potassium chloride |
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Why in the News?
Barren Island, which is not only India’s but South Asia’s only active volcano, has erupted twice in a span of eight days.
About Barren Island:
- Location: In the Andaman Sea, about 138–140 km northeast of Port Blair, within the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India).
- Unique Status: The only confirmed active volcano in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, lying on the volcanic arc between Sumatra (Indonesia) and Myanmar.
- Geophysical Features: Roughly circular island (~3 km diameter); volcanic crater located 0.5 km from shore, rising to 354 m above sea level and classified as a stratovolcano made of lava, volcanic ash, and rock fragments.
- Volcanic Activity
- First Recorded Eruption: 1787.
- Notable Eruptions: 1789, 1795, 1803–04, 1852, 1991, 2017, and minor eruptions in 2025.
- 1991 Eruption: Lasted ~6 months, destructive to local fauna.
- Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): Generally low, around 2.
- Geological Significance:
- Age of Flows: Oldest subaerial lava flows dated to 1.6 million years ago.
- Crust: Built on 106 million-year-old oceanic crust.
- Tectonics: Part of the subduction zone where the Indian Plate meets the Burmese Plate.
- Research Value: Critical for geological and volcanic studies as India’s only active volcano.
Note:
Although there are no active volcanoes in mainland India, there are some extinct and dormant volcanoes in the country. These are: Narcondam Island (dormant, A&N Islands); Deccan Plateau (18.51°N 73.43°E; extinct, Maharashtra); Baratang Island (mud volcanoes; active, A&N Islands); Dhinodhar Hills (extinct, Gujarat); Dhosi Hill (extinct, Haryana–Rajasthan border); Tosham Hills (extinct, Haryana); and Loktak Lake (Supervolcanic caldera, Manipur).
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
- The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
- Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
- The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only*
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar have released a roadmap for India’s fusion programme, envisioning the Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat) as the country’s first fusion electricity generator.
Back2Basics: ITER and India’s Contribution in ITER
- ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): It is the world’s largest nuclear fusion project, based in France, involving 35 nations.
- What is Nuclear Fusion: It is the process where light atomic nuclei, like hydrogen, combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy, as seen in the Sun and stars.
- Aim: Demonstrate safe, carbon-free fusion energy by achieving Q = 10 (500 MW output from 50 MW input).
- Uses Tokamak design, heating plasma to 150 million °C with superconducting magnets.
- India joined as a full partner in 2005, contributing 9% of ITER hardware (~₹17,500 crore).
- Major Indian contributions:
-
- Partnership: Member since 2005, contributes 9% of hardware (~₹17,500 crore) with full IP rights.
- Cryostat (3,800 tonnes, world’s largest vacuum vessel) – fabricated by L&T in Gujarat.
- Superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, RF heating systems, diagnostics, and shielding modules.
- R&D on lithium-lead breeder blankets for tritium self-sufficiency in fusion reactors.
- ITER serves as a training ground for Indian scientists, engineers, and industry, strengthening the country’s precision engineering and high-tech capabilities.
|
Roadmap for India’s Fusion Power Plan:
- Vision: Outlined by the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar, aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 goal.
- Strategy: Transition from fusion–fission hybrids (SST-Bharat) to a full fusion demonstration reactor (INDRA) by 2060.
- Phased Targets:
- 2025–2035: ITER participation, validation of deuterium-tritium (D–T) fueling, superconducting magnets, and plasma control.
- 2035–2060: Build INDRA (500 MWe, Q > 20), continuous operation >6 months, tritium breeding ratio >1.1.
- Post-2060: Commercial-scale fusion plants, target 50 GW fusion capacity by 2100, offsetting ~750 MT CO₂ annually.
- Hybrid Approach: Fusion neutrons to drive thorium-based subcritical assemblies until pure fusion matures.
- Innovations: Digital twins of tokamaks, AI-assisted plasma confinement, and radiation-resistant materials.
- Global Context: UK STEP targets 2040, US startups 2030s, China’s EAST plasma records; India aims for 2060 cautiously.
About Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat):
- Design: Planned as India’s first fusion electricity generator, a fusion–fission hybrid.
- Output: 130 MW total; 100 MW from fission, 30 MW from fusion.
- Target: Q-Value = 5 (fusion output/input ratio), vs ITER’s goal of Q = 10.
- Cost: Estimated at ₹25,000 crore.
- Features: Superconducting magnets, advanced plasma control, hybrid breeding design to generate fuel and reduce waste.
- Legacy: Builds on SST-1 tokamak, which achieved 650 ms confinement (designed for up to 16 min).
- Goal: Pave way for INDRA (250 MW, Q = 20) by 2060.
| [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?
Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation
(b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation
(c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation
(d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*
[UPSC 2025] The fusion energy programme in India has steadily evolved over the past few decades. Mention India’s contributions to the international fusion energy project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). What will be the implications of the success of this project for the future of global energy? |
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Why in the News?
The Union Environment Ministry has cleared the 2,220 MW Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri River in Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, near the China border.
About the Oju Hydroelectric Project:
- Capacity & Location: A 2,220 MW run-of-river hydro project on the Subansiri River at Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh, near the China border.
- Infrastructure:
- Dam: 93 m high, 355 m long concrete gravity dam.
- Tunnels: Two diversion tunnels, 14.17 km headrace tunnel.
- Powerhouse: Underground, with 8 turbines of 231.25 MW each.
- Hydrology: Catchment area 9,827 sq. km; average annual yield 11,339 million cubic meters.
Significance of the Project:
- Hydro Cascade: Largest in Subansiri basin, upstream of projects like Niare, Naba, Nalo, Dengser, Upper & Lower Subansiri, making it vital for basin-wide energy planning.
- Border Security: Strengthens India’s strategic presence near China border through infrastructure development.
- Energy Security: Provides clean power at ~₹5.65/kWh, supporting renewable targets and reducing fossil dependence.
Back2Basics: Subansiri River
- Also called the Gold River, it is the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra, about 518 km long with a 32,640 sq. km basin.
- It originates in Lhuntse County, Tibet, flows through Upper Subansiri district (Arunachal Pradesh), and enters India via the Miri Hills.
- The Upper Subansiri refers to its Himalayan origin stretch, while the Lower Subansiri marks its descent into the Assam Valley through Lower Subansiri district.
- It joins the Brahmaputra at Jamurighat/Majuli Island in Assam; key tributaries are Rangandi, Dikrong, Kamle, Char Chu, and Tsari Chu.
- Known for floods, rapids, and hydropower projects like the Lower Subansiri, the river also carries cultural importance in Tibet’s Tsari region.
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Why in the News?
The Union Minister for Commerce and Industry has released Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS), 2025 Report.
What is Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS)?
- Overview: It is a national index benchmarking logistics performance across States and Union Territories of India.
- Origin: Conceived in 2018, modelled on the World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index (LPI).
- Authority: Prepared by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- Methodology: Combines objective indicators (infrastructure, regulatory support, enablers) with perception-based feedback from stakeholders on cost, efficiency, and services.
- Purpose: Promotes healthy competition, identifies best practices, and guides policy interventions to improve logistics efficiency.
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About LEADS 2025:
- Launch: Released by the Union Minister for Commerce and Industry in New Delhi.
- Framework: Built on 4 pillars – Infrastructure, Services, Operating & Regulatory Environment, and Sustainable Logistics.
- New Features:
- Corridor-level assessment of major national and regional corridors (journey time, truck speed, waiting periods).
- API-enabled evaluation of section-wise truck speeds using real-time data.
- Classification: States/UTs ranked as Leaders, Achievers, and Aspirers.
- Alignment: Supports Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and Viksit Bharat 2047.
Key Highlights of LEADS 2025:
- Top States: Gujarat (1st), Karnataka (2nd), Maharashtra (3rd), Tamil Nadu (4th), Rajasthan (5th).
- Parameters: Journey time, logistics costs, infrastructure quality, service reliability, waiting times, and sustainability practices.
- Strategic Outcomes: Identifies bottlenecks, promotes evidence-based policymaking, reduces logistics costs, and enhances supply chain competitiveness.
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Why in the News?
Defence Minister Rajnath Singh inaugurated Tata Advanced Systems’ plant at Berrechid, Morocco—India’s first overseas and Morocco’s largest defence manufacturing facility.
About India’s Morocco Defence Facility:
- Developer: Established by Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL) – India’s first overseas defence manufacturing facility and Morocco’s largest defence plant.
- Scale & Capacity: Spread over 20,000 sq. m. with capacity to produce ~100 armoured vehicles annually.
- Product: Focused on the Wheeled Armoured Platform (WhAP) 8×8, jointly developed by TASL and DRDO.
- Variants: Modular designs include Infantry Fighting Vehicle, Armoured Personnel Carrier, Reconnaissance Vehicle, Command Post, Mortar Carrier, and Ambulance.
- Operations: First deliveries to the Royal Moroccan Army scheduled for October 2025.
Significance:
- Strategic Expansion: Extends India’s defence vision from Make in India to Make for the World.
- Diplomatic Milestone: Symbolises stronger India–Morocco defence ties, marked by the first visit of an Indian Defence Minister to Morocco.
- Economic & Employment Boost: Creates jobs in Morocco; 33% local sourcing of components (to increase to 50%).
- Export Hub: Morocco’s location makes it a gateway to Africa and Europe, enhancing India’s defence export footprint.
- Security Role: Enhances regional defence capacity and establishes India as a credible global supplier of armoured vehicles.
| [UPSC 2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?
Options: (a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.
(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.
(c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. *
(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India. |
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Why in the News?
Justice M.M. Sundresh of the Supreme Court remarked that the time has come to decriminalise defamation, reflecting concern over its growing misuse.
Free Speech and Defamation: Constitutional Provisions
- Article 19(1)(a): Freedom of speech & expression.
- Article 19(2): Allows reasonable restrictions in the interests of:
- Sovereignty & integrity of India.
- Security of the State.
- Friendly relations with foreign States.
- Public order, decency or morality.
- Contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence.
- Article 21: Right to reputation is part of right to life (Subramanian Swamy v. UOI, 2016).
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What is Criminal Defamation?
- Overview: Offence of harming a person’s character, fame, or reputation with false and malicious statements.
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Forms:
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- Libel: False defamatory statement in writing.
- Slander: False defamatory statement spoken orally.
- Indian Context: Both libel & slander are criminal offences if made publicly.
- Earlier IPC Section 499: Criminalised communication of false info harming reputation; punishment under IPC Section 500 – up to 2 years imprisonment.
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Law under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023:
- Section 354(2) – punishment up to 2 years simple imprisonment, or fine, or both, or community service.
- Section 356 – covers words, signs, or visible representations harming reputation.
- Scope: Applies to individuals, companies, and deceased persons if family reputation is harmed.
- Essential Elements: False statement, harm to reputation, communication to third party, and intent/knowledge of likely harm.
- Nature of Offence: Non-cognizable and bailable – requires a warrant for arrest; bail available.
- Digital Extension: Covers defamatory posts on social media, websites, and messaging platforms.
- Defences/Exceptions: Truth in public interest, fair comment on public servants, judicial proceedings, public performances, and cautionary statements made in good faith.
Judicial Pronouncements related to Defamation:
- Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016): SC upheld constitutionality of IPC Sections 499 & 500; held that reputation is part of Article 21; criminal defamation valid under Article 19(2) restrictions.
- Kaushal Kishore v. Union of India (2017): SC held no extra restrictions on free speech beyond Article 19(2).
- Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): SC struck down Section 66A of IT Act, calling it vague and violative of free speech.
- Imran Pratapgarhi Case (March 2025): Court adopted the “reasonable person” test (Clapham omnibus standard), not that of overly sensitive individuals.
- Recent Stays: SC stayed multiple cases (incl. against Rahul Gandhi and Shashi Tharoor) stressing courts should not be tools for political vendetta.
| [UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
[UPSC 2021] ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India?
Options: (a) Article 15 (b) Article 19 (c) Article 21 * (d) Article 29 |
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Why in the News?
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) released its latest assessment (2022–23) on the health of Indian rivers.
About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
- Overview: Statutory body set up in September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
- Expanded mandate: Later entrusted with powers under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
- Umbrella role: Serves as the technical arm of the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC), implementing provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
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Principal Functions:
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- Water pollution control: Promote cleanliness of streams and wells across states by preventing, controlling, and abating pollution; Oversee the National Water Quality Monitoring Program to collect, collate, and disseminate data.
- Air pollution control: Improve air quality and control emissions; Run the National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) to determine current status and trends. Regulate industrial pollution, provide baseline data for industrial siting and town planning.
- Data Management: Collects, collates, and disseminates technical and statistical data on air and water pollution.
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Key Initiatives and Programs:
- NAMP: Monitors air quality and pollution trends.
- NAQI (National Air Quality Index): Offers real-time air quality data.
- GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan): Measures graded interventions based on severity of pollution.
- Clean Air Campaign: Awareness and enforcement measures for pollution reduction.
CPCB Assessment of Pollution in Indian Rivers:
Parameters & Definitions:
- Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by microbes to break down organic matter.
- Healthy river: BOD <3 mg/L.
- Unfit for bathing: BOD >3 mg/L.
- Polluted River Stretch (PRS): When two or more consecutive locations in a river exceed bathing criteria (BOD >3 mg/L).
- Priority Classification (BOD levels):
-
- Priority 1: >30 mg/L → Most polluted, urgent remediation.
- Priority 2: 20–30 mg/L.
- Priority 3: 10–20 mg/L.
- Priority 4: 6–10 mg/L.
- Priority 5: 3–6 mg/L → least polluted category but still polluted.
Key Findings of the Report:
- Unfit bathing locations: 807 (2023) vs 815 (2022), shows marginal dip.
- Polluted River Stretches (PRS): 296 stretches/locations across 271 rivers in 2023 vs 311 stretches in 279 rivers in 2022.
- State-wise PRS (2023):
- Maharashtra: 54 (highest).
- Kerala: 31.
- Madhya Pradesh: 18.
- Manipur: 18.
- Karnataka: 14.
- Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2023): Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand (5 each).
- Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2022): Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (6 each).
| [UPSC 2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:
Options: (a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems *
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions |
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Why in the News?
Finnish researchers showed that nonlinear optical fibres can perform AI tasks efficiently, advancing optical computing.
About Optical Computing:
- Overview: A computer that uses light (photons) instead of electricity (electrons) to process data.
- Why Important: Light is faster, makes less heat, and carries more data at once.
- Technology Used: Runs through optical fibres, the same cables that carry internet data.
- Main Challenge: Hard to control how light behaves, especially when it gets very strong and non-linear (changes colour, merges, or spreads).
Recent Breakthrough:
- Research:
- Turned images into light pulses.
- Sent them through optical fibre where the light changed.
- These changes acted like a hidden computing layer.
- The system read the light at the other end to classify the images.
- Results: Reached 91–93% accuracy, close to normal AI computers.
How can it help AI working?
- Energy-efficient AI hardware: Can make faster and greener AI systems in the future.
- Tech needs: New tools like photonic chips and optical neural networks before large-scale use.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing* (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Why in the News?
China is planning to evacuate 4 lakh people ahead of the landfall of Super Typhoon Ragasa.
About Typhoon & Super Typhoon:
- Typhoon: A tropical cyclone forming in the Western Pacific Ocean and China Sea, usually above sea temperatures of 27°C.
- Formation: Warm, moist air rises and creates a low-pressure system with spiralling winds.
- Super Typhoon: Defined by the US Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) as sustained winds of ≥240 km/h (some agencies use 185 km/h).
- Structure:
- Eye: Calm centre.
- Eyewall: Strongest winds and rainfall.
- Spiral Rainbands: Bands of showers spreading outward.
- Impacts: Can cause storm surges, coastal flooding, landslides, and destruction of infrastructure, agriculture, and homes.
Back2Basics: Tropical Cyclones
- What is it: Large low-pressure systems over warm oceans, marked by rotating winds, heavy rain, and storm surges.
- Conditions: Form when ocean temps >27°C, with moist rising air releasing latent heat to fuel convection.
- Rotation: Driven by the Coriolis force – anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in Southern.
- Structure: Eye (calm), Eyewall (violent winds/rains), Rainbands (widespread showers).
- Regional Names: Typhoons (Pacific), Hurricanes (Atlantic/Caribbean), Cyclones (Indian Ocean).
- Drivers & Frequency: Common in Southeast Asia due to warm Pacific waters, El Niño/La Niña cycles, and climate change.
- Impacts: Loss of life, property damage, flooding, soil salinisation, displacement, and disease outbreaks.
- Climate Change Link: Global warming is making tropical cyclones stronger, less predictable, and more frequent, raising risks for coastal populations.
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| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only * (d) 1 and 3 only |
https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/china-to-evacuate-4-lakh-as-super-typhoon-ragasa-approaches/article70080064.ece
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Why in the News?
Astronomers have confirmed the discovery of asteroid 2025 PN7, Earth’s latest quasi-moon.
About Quasi-Moon 2025 PN7:
- Discovery: First detected on 2 August 2025 by the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope in Hawaii; confirmed in September 2025 as Earth’s newest quasi-satellite.
- Orbit: Circles the Sun, not Earth, but remains near Earth due to a 1:1 orbital resonance – meaning it completes one solar orbit in the same time as Earth.
- Distance from Earth: At closest, ~299,000 km, similar to the Moon’s distance.
- Physical Traits: Roughly 19 metres wide, very faint (magnitude 26.4), requiring large telescopes to track.
- Orbital Parameters: Semi-major axis 1.003 AU (same as Earth), eccentricity 0.108 (slightly oval), inclination just under 2°.
- Arjuna Nature: Fits the Arjuna asteroid class criteria – extremely Earth-like orbit, low eccentricity, and low inclination, making it appear as a temporary companion.
- Stability: Expected to remain a quasi-satellite for ~128 years before shifting into another orbital configuration.
What is the Arjuna Asteroid Class?
- Overview: A rare group of near-Earth objects (NEOs) with orbits closely matching Earth’s path around the Sun.
- Etymology: Originated with the discovery of asteroid 1991 VG by astronomer Robert H. McNaught at the Siding Spring Observatory in Australia in 1991.
- Name Origin: Inspired by Arjuna from the Mahabharata – symbolising fast-moving and elusive objects.
- Special Traits:
- Can approach Earth more closely than most asteroid families.
- Sometimes become temporary mini-moons or quasi-satellites.
- Have relatively low relative velocities, making them attractive for spacecraft missions.
- Scientific Importance:
- Offer natural laboratories for studying orbital resonance and gravitational effects.
- Useful for testing asteroid mining and redirection technologies.
- Significant for planetary defence, since tracking their movements refines collision risk predictions.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
Object in space – Description
1. Cepheids – Giant clouds of dust and gas in space
2. Nebulae – Stars which brighten and dim periodically
3. Pulsars – Neutron stars that, are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
A NITI Aayog panel has proposed easing India’s Quality Control Orders (QCOs) by simplifying certification, assessments, and inspections to support MSMEs amid domestic and global criticism.
About Quality Control Orders (QCOs):
- Overview: Issued under the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Act, 2016, QCOs make Indian Standards compulsory for specific products in public interest (health, environment, security, fair trade).
- Voluntary vs. Mandatory: Normally BIS certification is voluntary, but under QCOs manufacturers/importers must obtain a BIS licence or Certificate of Conformity before production, imports, or sales.
- Standard Mark: Products under QCOs carry the ISI mark (or Hallmark for jewellery) to indicate conformity.
- Legal Backing: Governed by BIS (Conformity Assessment) Regulations, 2018; violation punishable with fines or imprisonment.
- Imports: Applies equally to foreign manufacturers via the Foreign Manufacturers Certification Scheme (FMCS).
- Coverage: Of ~23,000 BIS standards, only 187 QCOs covering 770 products exist; 84 QCOs covering 343 products issued in the last three years.
- Example: QCOs for compressors & ACs (2023) boosted compressor output from <2 million (2021–22) to 8 million (2023–24); ACs to 12 million+ units.
Challenges Related to QCOs:
- High Costs: Certification involves inspections, documents, and assessments—burdening MSMEs.
- Non-Tariff Barrier Issues: US, EU, UK, NZ claim India’s QCOs exceed global norms. USTR (2025) flagged BIS marks even for chemicals, requiring site visits.
- Industry Pushback: MSMEs fear inflationary costs; imports of cheaper raw materials/components restricted.
- Limited Enforcement: Only 187 of 23,000 standards notified, mainly steel, electronics, chemicals.
- Implementation Delays: Licence approvals slow; procedures disrupt production and supply chains.
- Conflicting Views: Some MSMEs benefit (e.g., Birla Aircon turnover jumped ₹7 crore to ₹42 crore after QCO on water coolers), others call it “malign intervention” (NITI Aayog VC Suman Berry).
Steps Taken by Government:
- Digitisation: Simplified certification covering 750+ products; licences granted in 30 days.
- MSME Outreach:
- Jan Sunwai: Online open-house thrice weekly.
- Manak Manthan: BIS field initiative for MSME support.
- Regional Conferences: Led by Department of Consumer Affairs to resolve issues.
- Capacity Building: Of 50,753 BIS certifications, ~40,000 (≈80%) issued to MSMEs; 24,625 voluntarily obtained for credibility/exports.
- Trade Readiness: Govt projects QCOs as tools to raise quality and global competitiveness.
- WTO Consistency: Justified if linked to health, safety, environment, deceptive trade, or security, in line with WTO Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to `Quality Council of India (QCI)’, consider the following statements:
1. QCI was set up jointly by the Government of India and the Indian Industry.
2. Chairman of QCI is appointed by the Prime Minister on the recommendations of the industry to the Government.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
New research by the University of Hawaii has discovered Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs), the most powerful explosions since the Big Bang, surpassing even gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in energy output.
Back2Basics: Big Bang
- Proponent: In 1927 by Georges Lemaître.
- Timeline: Universe originated ~13.7–13.8 billion years ago from a singularity.
- Phases: Began with cosmic inflation, followed by expansion, cooling, and formation of matter, light, and four fundamental forces.
- Cosmic Evolution: Led to atoms, stars, galaxies, and planets; universe still expanding.
- Evidence: Supported by cosmic microwave background radiation and Hubble’s observations of galaxy redshifts.
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About Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs):
- Discovery: First reported by astronomers at the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy (IfA).
- Cause: Triggered when massive stars (≥3 times Sun’s mass) are torn apart by supermassive black holes at galactic centers.
- Energy Output: Release ten times more energy than gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), earlier considered the brightest cosmic events.
- Duration: Remain luminous in radio wavelengths for years, unlike short-lived bursts.
How ENTs differ from other cosmic events?
- Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs): They come from collapsing stars or mergers; short-lived but highly energetic. ENTs are more powerful and last longer.
- Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs): TDEs also shred stars, but ENTs involve larger black holes and massive stars, making them rarer.
- Fast X-ray Transients (FXTs): They are faint, brief X-ray bursts from trapped jets in supernovae. ENTs are brighter, multi-wavelength, and more energetic.
Scientific Importance of ENTs:
- Most Energetic Events: Represent the most powerful class of transients ever observed.
- Black Hole Studies: Offer insights into supermassive black hole dynamics and their role in galactic evolution.
- Early Universe Clues: Help probe massive stars soon after galaxy formation.
- Future Observations: Key targets for next-generation telescopes like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
| [UPSC 2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 * (b) 2 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) None of the above. |
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