Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Credit Programme
Why in the News?
The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.
About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)
- The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
- It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
- Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
- These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
- It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
- The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.
Criticisms of the Program:
- Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
- Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
- Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
- Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy
Why in the News?
The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.
RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935
- On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
- The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.
Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy
- Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
- The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
- The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
- Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
- The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
- Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
- The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
- Exchange Rate Management
- In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
- This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
- Disputes Between Government and RBI
- The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
- This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
- The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.
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About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
- The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
- Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
- Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
- He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
- It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
- RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
- Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.
Functions and Initiatives:
- Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
- Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
- Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
- Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
- Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
- Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
- Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.
Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
- These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.
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| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:
1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.
2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles
Why in the News?
In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.
About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind
- Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
- This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
- Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
- This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
- This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
- Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
- This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
- They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
- Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.
Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):
- Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
- Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
- Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
- What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
- If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
- This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.
AMoRE Experiment:
- The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
- The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
- While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.
|
Scientific Significance:
- The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
- Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
Why in the News?
SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.
About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
- The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
- The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
- Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
- Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
- The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
- The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.
Features and Significance:
- Unique Orbital Path:
- Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
- This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
- Scientific Research:
- The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
- Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
- Climate Change Research:
- As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in
1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.
2. predicting the onset of monsoons.
3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bacterial Brick
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.
About the Bacterial Brick:
- The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
- It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
- How is it made?
- The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
- The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
- The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.
Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:
- The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
- A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
- When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
- This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
- It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
| [UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?
1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya
Why in the News?
Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.
Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:
- The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
- Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
- The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
- However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
- This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
- The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.
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About the Mahabodhi Temple:
|
Details |
| About |
- Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
- The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
- Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
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| Architectural Features |
- Early example of brick architecture.
- Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
- Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
- Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
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| Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex |
- Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
- Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
- Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
- Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
- Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
|
| Historical Timeline |
- First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
- Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
- Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
|
| Key Features and Preservation |
- Built with brick and stucco.
- Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
- Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
- Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
|
| [UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?
(a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.
About Parker Solar Probe
- The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
- It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
- The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
- This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
- The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
- The primary goals are:
- Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
- Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
- Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
- Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
- The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
- FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
- ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
- SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
- WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
- Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.
Impact of the Mission on Solar Science
- Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
- Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
- New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
- Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
- Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
| [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sarhul Festival
Why in the News?
On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.
About Sarhul Festival
- Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
- It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
- It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
- It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
- The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
- The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
- The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
- It also marks the renewal of life.
- After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.
Cultural Significance of Sarhul
- Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
- Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
- Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
- Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Share of Coal in India's Energy Basket
Why in the News?
According to MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
Share of Coal in India’s Energy Basket:
- Dominance: As of 2023-24, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
- Production Growth: In 2023-24, India saw a 12% increase in coal production, continuing a strong growth trajectory from the 15% growth in 2022-23, marking one of the fastest growth rates in the past decade.
- Dependence on Imports: Despite a surge in domestic production, India remains 26% dependent on coal imports, although this has decreased from 31% in 2019-20.
India’s Total Energy Basket:
- Coal: Discussed above.
- Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power contributes approximately 1.7% to the total electricity generation capacity, with an installed capacity of about 8,180 MW as of late 2024.
- Crude Oil: The share of crude oil has decreased from 11% in 2014-15 to 6% in 2023-24, indicating a long-term decline in its contribution to India’s energy mix.
- Natural Gas: Similarly, natural gas’s share has decreased from 9% in 2014-15 to 7% in 2023-24, reflecting a shift away from natural gas in the energy mix.
- Renewable Energy: Despite significant investments and efforts by the government, renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear) contribute only 7% to the total energy mix in 2023-24, showing slow but steady growth over the past decade.
Shift Towards Renewable Energy:
- Total Contribution: Renewable sources contributed 7% of India’s total energy production in 2023-24, a modest increase from 6% in 2014-15. While this share remains small, the absolute production from renewables has grown at a 6.76% CAGR over the past 10 years.
- Growth in Solar and Wind Energy:
- The generation from solar, wind, and other renewable sources (excluding large hydro) has surged by 210% over the last decade, increasing from 6,555 KToE in FY15 to 20,279 KToE in FY24.
- Key Renewable Energy Potential:
- Wind energy holds the largest share of India’s renewable potential at 55.17%, with an estimated potential of 11,63,856 MW.
- Solar energy is the second-largest contributor at 35.50%, with a potential of 7,48,990 MW.
- Large hydro contributes 6.32% of the renewable energy potential with 1,33,410 MW.
- Future Targets:
- India added 3.4 GW of new wind capacity in 2024, with Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), and Tamil Nadu (980 MW) leading the way.
- India is aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, which would significantly boost the share of renewables in the energy mix, reducing the reliance on coal and crude oil over the coming years.
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.
3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Judges' Asset Disclosure
Why in the News?
The discovery of large sums of cash at Delhi High Court judges’ residence has raised concerns about corruption in India’s judiciary and reignited the debate over the public disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities.
Current Stance on Judges’ Asset Disclosure
- Supreme Court’s Historical Approach:
- 1997 Resolution: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice J.S. Verma, resolved that judges should disclose their assets to the Chief Justice of India (CJI), but this did not involve public disclosure.
- 2009 Resolution: The full Bench of the Supreme Court agreed to publish judges’ asset declarations on the court’s website, though this was done voluntarily. However, the website has not been updated since 2018, and the assets of current judges are not publicly available.
- 2019 Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled that judges’ personal assets and liabilities are not private information, making them subject to the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
- High Court’s Position:
- As of March 2024, only 13% of High Court judges have publicly disclosed their assets and liabilities. Many High Courts, including Uttarakhand and Allahabad, have opposed public disclosure and argued that such information is outside the scope of the RTI Act.
- Resistance to Full Disclosure:
- The Uttarakhand High Court (2012) passed a resolution opposing the disclosure of judges’ assets under the RTI Act. Similarly, many High Courts have rejected RTI applications seeking information about judges’ assets.
Parliament’s Role – Proposed Reforms
- Committee Recommendation (2023):
- The Parliamentary Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, and Law and Justice recommended that legislation be introduced to make the disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities mandatory for Supreme Court and High Court judges.
- However, there has been no progress on implementing this recommendation as of now.
- Need for Legislation:
- Despite the RTI Act requiring public servants to disclose their assets, judges have largely remained exempt from such transparency.
- Legislative action is seen as essential to ensure accountability and transparency within the judiciary, with several advocating for mandatory public disclosure similar to other public officials.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to the appointment of the High Court Judges, consider the following statements:
1. Chief Justice of India is consulted by the President in the appointment.
2. Governor of the State is consulted by the Chief Justice of India in the appointment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service, including judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability and ethical conduct. Elaborate. |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tribhuvandas Patel
Why in the News?
The Lok Sabha recently passed a Bill to establish Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, in honour of Tribhuvandas Kishibhai Patel, a visionary leader known as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly in dairy farming.
Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?
- Patel was born in 1903 to Kishibhai Patel and Lakhiba in Anand, Gujarat. He was an alumnus of Gujarat Vidyapith and was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
- A dedicated freedom fighter, Patel participated in the civil disobedience movement, campaigns against untouchability, and the salt satyagraha.
- He was jailed in 1930 for his participation in the Salt Movement.
- He is widely recognized as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly for his transformative work in the dairy industry.
Patel’s Contribution to the Cooperative Movement
- In 1946, Patel founded the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Limited (KDCMPUL), known later as Amul, to empower farmers and challenge the monopoly of the Polson Dairy in Anand, Gujarat.
- Patel collaborated with Verghese Kurien, a mechanical engineer, to modernize the dairy plant and increase milk production. This collaboration eventually led to the White Revolution in India.
- Patel was also instrumental in setting up the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), and the Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), which played a pivotal role in cooperative dairy farming and rural development.
- After his retirement, Patel used funds from the cooperative community to establish the Tribhuvandas Foundation, focused on community health and welfare.
Cooperative Movement in India:
- Pre-Independence Era:
- The cooperative movement originated from informal local initiatives like Chit Funds and Mutual-Loan Associations in places like Madras Presidency and Punjab.
- The 1904 Cooperative Credit Societies Act formally recognized cooperatives.
- The Government of India Act, 1919 empowered provinces to legislate on cooperatives, leading to the Bombay Cooperative Society Act of 1925.
- Post-Independence Developments:
- Cooperatives became central to India’s economic strategies, particularly for rural development and social justice.
- The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) (1963) and NABARD (1982) supported rural cooperatives and provided credit to farmers.
- The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) granted the right to form cooperatives under Article 19.
- The Ministry of Cooperation was formed in 2021 to strengthen the cooperative framework.
- The MSCS Amendment Act 2023 aims to improve governance and operational efficiency of cooperatives.
Key Types of Cooperatives in India:
- Consumers’ Cooperatives: Provide affordable goods by removing intermediaries (e.g., Kendriya Bhandar).
- Producers’ Cooperatives: Support small producers by supplying essential materials.
- Cooperative Marketing Societies: Help producers market products collectively (e.g., Amul).
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| [UPSC 2011] In India, which of the following have the highest share in the disbursement of credit to agriculture and allied activities?
(a) Commercial Banks (b) Cooperative Banks (c) Regional Rural Banks (d) Microfinance Institutions |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise INIOCHOS 25
Why in the News?
The Indian Air Force will participate in Exercise INIOCHOS-25 hosted by the Hellenic Air Force at Andravida Air Base, Greece.
About Exercise INIOCHOS
- INIOCHOS is a biennial multinational air exercise that provides air forces with a platform to enhance their operational readiness.
- It is hosted by the Hellenic (Greek) Air Force and brings together military aviation units from various countries, promoting international cooperation.
- It was first conducted in the late 1980s, as a small-scale tactical level exercise.
- Objective: To allow air forces to practice Combined Air Operations and share tactical knowledge through realistic combat scenarios.
Key Features of Exercise INIOCHOS:
- It integrates air and surface assets from fifteen countries, promoting multinational cooperation in air warfare.
- It will simulate modern-day air warfare challenges, providing a real-world training environment for participating air forces.
- It will be placed on planning and executing Combined Air operations, refining tactics in complex air warfare scenarios.
Strategic Importance for India:
- India’s participation in INIOCHOS-25 underlines its commitment to global defence cooperation and showcases its ability to work seamlessly in joint operations.
- The exercise will reinforce India’s strategic partnerships with other nations and further enhance its readiness for joint operations in complex and dynamic air warfare environments.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earthquakes
Why in the News?
A powerful 7.7 magnitude earthquake struck Myanmar, with its epicentre near Mandalay, the country’s second-largest city.
What caused the Earthquake in Myanmar?
- Myanmar is situated between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which makes the region seismically active.
- The Sagaing Fault, running from north to south through Myanmar, marks the boundary of these plates.
- It is an active fault line that has caused significant earthquakes in the past, including a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in 1912 and a 6.9 magnitude earthquake in 2016.
- The Indian Plate was moving northward along the Sagaing Fault relative to the Eurasian Plate. The friction and stress built up along this fault led to a sudden release of energy, resulting in the earthquake.
- The earthquake’s epicentres was located 17.2 km from Mandalay, Myanmar’s second-largest city, at a depth of just 10 km.
Why are Shallow Earthquakes more destructive?
- Proximity to the Surface: Shallow earthquakes (less than 70 km deep) cause intense shaking. For example, the Myanmar earthquake occurred at 10 km, leading to rapid, forceful seismic waves and extensive damage.
- Energy Release: Shallow earthquakes retain more energy in seismic waves, causing stronger surface shaking and greater destruction.
- Higher Intensity: Shallow quakes produce higher intensity shaking, resulting in more structural damage compared to deeper quakes, where seismic waves lose energy.
- Aftershocks: Shallow earthquakes often lead to more intense aftershocks, further damaging already weakened structures. The Myanmar earthquake had aftershocks, including one with magnitude 6.4.
Back2Basics: Earthquake and Related Terminologies
- Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the ground caused by energy release from tectonic plate movements or volcanic activity, generating seismic waves.
- Key Terminologies:
-
- Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates, deep beneath the surface.
- Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, usually the most affected area.
- Seismic Waves: Waves that carry the energy released during an earthquake and cause ground shaking.
- Fault: A crack or fracture in the Earth’s crust where movement occurs, often causing earthquakes.
- Magnitude: A measure of the earthquake’s size or energy, commonly measured on the Richter scale.
- Intensity: The strength of shaking at specific locations, measured by the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.
Types of Earthquake Waves:
- Body Waves: Travel through the Earth’s interior, detected first by seismographs.
- Primary Waves (P-Waves): Fastest, compression waves that move through solids and liquids.
- Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Shear waves, slower than P-waves, that move through solids only.
- Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth’s surface, slower but cause more damage.
- Love Waves: Move side-to-side horizontally, causing significant damage.
- Rayleigh Waves: Cause elliptical ground motion, similar to ocean waves, very destructive.
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| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.
2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propagation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MGNREGS
Why in the News?
The Centre has announced a hike in the wages under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) for the financial year 2025-26, with an increase ranging from 2-7%.
Wage Revision Under MGNREGS:
- 2025-26 Wage Hike:
- Wage increase: 2.33%-7.48%, with ₹7 to ₹26 rise.
- Haryana records the largest hike of ₹26, bringing the wage to ₹400 per day (highest in India).
- Wage Calculation:
- Wages are linked to the Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Labourers (CPI-AL).
- Previous Hikes:
- Goa had the largest hike of 10.56% in 2024-25.
- Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand had the smallest at 3.04%.
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About MGNREGS
- The MGNREGS, launched in 2005, guarantees 100 days of wage employment annually for rural households.
- It provides a legal right to work, focusing on unskilled manual labour.
- Unique Features:
- 100 days of employment for rural households, with adult members volunteering for unskilled work.
- If employment isn’t provided within 15 days, an unemployment allowance is paid.
- Work must be offered within 5 km of the applicant’s residence.
- The Centre funds 100% of unskilled labour costs, 75% of skilled labour and materials, and 6% of administrative costs.
- Key Provisions under MGNREGS
-
- Rural households are entitled to 100 days of employment. Additional days are allowed during natural calamities or for Scheduled Tribe households.
- Citizens can conduct social audits to ensure transparency, with all records open to public scrutiny.
- Worksites must provide crèches, drinking water, and first aid.
- Workers more than 5 km from the worksite receive a travel allowance of 10% of the wage rate.
Recent Challenges surrounding MGNREGS:
- Delayed Payments: ₹11,423 crore owed for wages and administrative costs as of January 2025, with workers facing delays of weeks or months.
- Inadequate Wage Rates: Wage rates are not linked to inflation, with the highest wage for 2024-25 at ₹374 in Haryana, below the national minimum wage.
- Technological Challenges: Issues with Aadhaar-based payments and mobile monitoring systems have led to non-payment or misdirected funds.
- Budget Constraints: Budget allocations have decreased from 0.4% of GDP in FY22 to 0.2% in FY25, impacting workdays and payments.
- Social Audit Irregularities: Irregular audits by Gram Sabhas raise concerns about accountability and transparency.
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| [UPSC 2011] Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act”?
(a) Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households
(b) Adult members of below poverty line (BPL) households
(c) Adult members of households of all backward communities
(d) Adult members of any household |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Prachand Prahaar
Why in the News?
The Indian Army conducted a Tri-Service integrated multi-domain warfare exercise, called ‘Prachand Prahaar’, in the high-altitude terrain of Arunachal Pradesh.
About Exercise Prachand Prahaar
- It is a tri-service integrated multi-domain warfare exercise involving the Army, Indian Air Force (IAF), and Indian Navy.
- It is conducted in the high-altitude terrain of Arunachal Pradesh, near the Line of Actual Control (LAC), which spans 3,488 km.
- The exercise was carried out under the aegis of the Eastern Army Command.
- The primary objective was to validate a fully integrated approach to surveillance, command and control, and precision firepower across all three services.
- The exercise aimed at simulating future warfare scenarios with a synergised combat drill.
Key Components and Execution:
- The exercise began with the deployment of advanced surveillance resources from all three services, which included:
- Long-range surveillance aircraft from the IAF.
- Maritime domain awareness aircraft from the Indian Navy.
- Helicopters and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs).
- Space-based resources and the Indian Army’s elite special forces.
- These resources created seamless domain awareness, which allowed for the identification of simulated targets.
Related Previous Exercises:
- The Prachand Prahaar exercise builds upon the momentum of Exercise Poorvi Prahar, which was held in November 2024.
- The focus of Poorvi Prahar was on the integrated application of aviation assets.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rana Sanga
Why in the News?
A recent statement by an MP in Parliament labelling Rajput ruler Rana Sanga a “traitor,” has sparked controversy over his role in inviting Babur to invade India.
Who was Rana Sanga?
- Rana Sanga, also known as Maharana Sangram Singh, was a Rajput king who ruled the kingdom of Mewar in present-day Rajasthan from 1509 to 1527.
- He expanded his kingdom significantly, conquering parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, and Sindh.
- He formed a powerful Rajput confederacy and led a massive army of 80,000 warhorses and 500 elephants.
- He was known for his military campaigns against the Lodi dynasty of Delhi, the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat, and even the Mughals.
- His most notable victories include the Battle of Gagron against Sultan Mahmud Khilji of Malwa and the Battle of Dholpur in 1519 against Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi.
- Battle with Babur:
- Rana Sanga eventually came into conflict with Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire.
- The two fought in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, where Babur’s forces defeated Sanga’s Rajput army.
- This marked the end of Rajput resistance to the Mughals in Northern India.
- Legacy:
- Despite his defeat at Khanwa, he is remembered as a hero of Rajput resistance and is considered one of the last independent Hindu rulers in Northern India before the rise of Mughal dominance.
Recent Controversy:
- The remarks were made amid growing debates about Medieval Indian history, particularly surrounding Aurangzeb and the role of various historical figures in Indian politics.
- Historians are divided on whether Rana Sanga explicitly invited Babur to invade India.
- Babur’s memoirs, the Baburnama, mention that Rana Sanga offered assistance against Ibrahim Lodi.
- Yet, historians like Satish Chandra propose that Rana Sanga might have viewed Babur as a means to weaken the Lodi Sultanate, possibly underestimating Babur’s intentions to establish his own rule in India.
- Some argue that Rana Sanga might have seen Babur as a useful ally against Ibrahim Lodi, while others believe his role was exaggerated by Babur in his memoir, the Baburnama.
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to the Mughal Empire, which one of the following statements is NOT correct?
(a) Mughal officials who were in charge of land revenue were known as Karoris.
(b) The term ‘Jagirdar’ was used for the holders of revenue assignments.
(c) The office of ‘Mir Bakshi’ was related to the imperial household.
(d) The Rajput chiefs were integrated into the Mughal nobility. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Section 44(3)
Why in the News?
Opposition parties have raised concerns over the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, demanding the repeal of Section 44(3), claiming it could undermine the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005.
About DPDP Act and Section 44(3)
- Recognizing the right to privacy as fundamental in India, the Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (2017) led to the introduction of the DPDP Act in 2023.
- The Act regulates the processing of personal data, balancing individual privacy rights and lawful processing needs.
- Key Provisions: It mandates informed consent, establishes a Data Protection Board of India (DPBI), and outlines the responsibilities of data fiduciaries in ensuring data protection.
- Section 44(3) modifies Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, which previously exempted personal information from disclosure unless public interest justified it.
- The amendment broadens this exemption, stating that all personal information should be exempt from disclosure, without requiring a public interest justification.
Concerns Related to Section 44(3)
- Reduced Transparency: Activists and critics argue that this section undermines the RTI Act, which has been a cornerstone of transparency and accountability in governance.
- Limited Access to Public Information: The broad exemption allows government officials to shield information like asset disclosures, which are critical for public accountability.
- Potential for Misuse: There are concerns that personal data protection could be used as an excuse to block vital information about government activities, weakening the public’s right to know.
- Conflict Between Public Interest and Privacy: Critics argue that privacy protection should not override the principle of transparency.
Back2Basics: Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005
- The RTI Act, 2005 empowers Indian citizens to seek information from public authorities, ensuring transparency and accountability in governance.
- RTI is considered a fundamental right under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees freedom of speech and expression,
- Key Features:
- Applicability: Covers all government bodies, including central, state, and local authorities.
- Public Information Officers (PIOs): Designated officials who are responsible for providing requested information within 30 days.
- Exemptions: Some categories of information are exempted, such as national security matters and personal privacy.
- Penalty: Officials can face fines for failing to provide information without valid reasons.
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| [UPSC 2018] Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement?
(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42ndAmendment to the Constitution.
(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV.
(c) Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III.
(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44thAmendment to the Constitution. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India BioEconomy Report
Why in the News?
The India BioEconomy Report has pegged the value of India’s bioeconomy in 2024 at more than $165 billion, accounting for over 4.2% of the country’s GDP.
What is Bioeconomy?
- Bioeconomy refers to the industrial use of biological resources (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and the replication of natural biological processes to produce goods and services.
- It incorporates sustainable methods to replace traditional, resource-intensive production systems.
- Applications:
- Biofuels, bioplastics, medicines, synthetic biology, and agriculture are key sectors where bioeconomy is being applied.
- Ex. Ethanol produced via microorganisms from crops like sugarcane and corn is a prime example of bioeconomy’s impact on reducing reliance on hydrocarbon-based fuels.
Key Highlights of the India Bioeconomy Report:
- Growth in Market Value:
- India’s bioeconomy has nearly doubled in value from $86 billion in 2020 to $165 billion in 2024.
- There has been a 90% increase in the number of companies in the bioeconomy sector, from 5,365 in 2021 to 10,075 in 2024, with projections to double again by 2030.
- Key Sectors:
- Industrial Sector: Contributes nearly $78 billion, driven by biofuels and bioplastics.
- Pharmaceuticals: Accounts for 35% of the total bioeconomy value, primarily driven by vaccines.
- Research and IT: The fastest-growing segment, especially in biotech software development and clinical trials.
- Regional Contribution:
- Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh account for over two-thirds of the bioeconomy value.
- The Eastern and Northeastern regions contribute less than 6%.
- Global Comparison:
- India’s bioeconomy share in GDP (4.2%) is comparable to countries like the US and China.
- However, countries like Spain and Italy have bioeconomy contributing more than 20% of their GDP.
- Policy Direction:
- The BioE3 policy (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment), launched in 2024, aims to establish India as a global hub for bio-manufacturing and a major center for biotech R&D.
- The policy targets growth in areas such as bio-based chemicals, functional foods, precision biotherapeutics, marine and space biotechnology, and climate-resilient agriculture.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following materials:
1. Agricultural residues
2. Corn grain
3. Wastewater treatment sludge
4. Wood mill waste
Which of the above can be used as feedstock for producing Sustainable Aviation Fuel?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1,2,3 and 4 (d) 1,3 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GAIA Mission
Why in the News?
The European Space Agency (ESA) officially shut down its Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) Mission, which had been operational for over a decade.
About the GAIA Mission
- It was launched in December 2013 with the primary goal to create the most accurate three-dimensional map of the Milky Way galaxy.
- It sought to measure the positions, distances, and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
- Gaia was designed for astrometry, focusing on precise measurements of celestial object locations and motions.
- Positioned at Lagrange Point 2 (L2), 1.5 million kilometres behind Earth (as viewed from the Sun), Gaia was able to observe the universe without interference from Earth, the Sun, or the Moon.
- Gaia was equipped with two telescopes and a camera with nearly 1 billion pixels, the largest camera ever sent to space. Key instruments include:
- Astrometer: Measured the location and motion of stars.
- Photometer: Measured brightness of celestial objects.
- Spectrometer: Analyzed the composition and movement of stars.
- Discoveries and Achievements:
- Gaia mapped the Milky Way in 3D, uncovering its shape, structure, and movement. It also detected warping and wobbling in the galaxy.
- Gaia identified new types of black holes by observing their gravitational effects and tracked over 150,000 asteroids, contributing insights on their orbits and future impacts on Earth.
- Additionally, it provided new understanding of stellar evolution and the formation of stars, including the Sun.
- Gaia accumulated over 3 trillion observations, contributing to more than 13,000 scientific papers, revolutionizing knowledge about the Milky Way, the solar system, and galactic dynamics.
Why is Gaia being Decommissioned?
- After more than a decade of operations, the Gaia mission reached the end of its operational lifespan, making it unsustainable to continue its activities.
- After over 10 years in space, Gaia’s technology showed signs of wear, and continuing operations became unfeasible.
- On March 27, 2025, Gaia was successfully passivated, draining all internal energy sources. This means it can no longer be restarted or resumed for future operations.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs: Objects in space Description
1. Cepheids : Giant clouds of dust and gas in space
2. Nebulae : Stars which brighten and dim periodically
3. Pulsars : Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a)Only one (b) Only two (c)All three (d) None |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)
Why in the News?
March 27 is the death anniversary of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, a prominent 19th-century reformer and educationist who significantly advanced the social and educational development of Muslims.
About Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)
- Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi, into a renowned Muslim family.
- He received education in Persian and Arabic and was well-versed in Islamic studies from an early age.
- Public Service and Recognition:
- He joined the British government’s judicial service in 1876 and was exposed to Western education and ideas, significantly influencing his later reforms.
- He served as a member of the Viceregal Council (1878-1883), the Lieutenant Governor’s Council of the North-Western Province (1887), and was involved in educational reforms as part of the Imperial Education Commission (1888) and the Royal Public Service Commission (1886).
- He was knighted by the British in 1888 for his contributions to social and educational reforms.
- Role During British Rule:
- After the 1857 revolt, Sir Syed helped change the British perception of Muslims, utilizing British support to improve Muslim progress.
- He focused on education and cultural reform within the British framework to improve Muslim society.
Key Contributions:
- Educational Reforms:
- Sir Syed founded Madrasatul Uloom in 1875, which later became Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College in 1877, laying the foundation for Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
- He encouraged English education, believing it was essential for India’s progress. His visit to England in 1869-1870 further convinced him of its importance.
- Promotion of Critical Thinking and Modernity:
- Sir Syed advocated for the reconciliation of Islamic faith with modern scientific thought and believed Islamic principles could coexist with modernity and science.
- He emphasized reason and critical thinking, opposing blind tradition.
- Social and Religious Reforms:
- He supported women’s education, opposed purdah and polygamy, and advocated for easier divorce laws.
- He criticized the Piri and Muridi System and promoted self-discipline and independent thought.
- Political Views:
- While involved in governance, Sir Syed was cautious about direct political engagement to avoid hostility from the British.
- Literary Contributions:
- Sir Syed launched 3 bilingual periodicals — The Loyal Mohammedans of India (1860), The Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866), and Tehzibul Akhlakh (1870) — to promote modernity, rational thought, and cultural pluralism, combating sectarianism and bigotry.
- Hindu-Muslim Unity:
- He once famously described Hindus and Muslims as “two eyes of the beautiful bride, that if any of the eyes hurt, made the bride ugly.” He had declared in 1884 at Gurdaspur that the Hindus and Muslims should try to become one heart and soul and act in unison.
- The Aligarh Movement:
- It aimed to modernize the Muslim community by promoting modern education while preserving Islamic values.
- It led to social reforms such as the abolition of purdah and polygamy, and the promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education.
| [UPSC 2000] Consider the following pairs:
Institution – Founder
1. Sanskrit College at Benaras – William Jones
2. Calcutta Madarsa – Warren Hastings
3. Fort William College – Arthur Wellesley
4. Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh – Syed Ahmad Khan
How many of the above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four |
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