Why in the News?
The Working Group on Avian Checklists has released AviList, the world’s first unified global bird checklist to standardize bird classification and support global research and conservation.
What is AviList?
- Overview: AviList is the first unified global checklist of bird species, officially launched on June 12, 2025.
- Who developed it: It was developed by the Working Group on Avian Checklists, with representatives from BirdLife International, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the International Ornithologists’ Union, the American Ornithologists’ Society, and Avibase.
- Purpose: The checklist aims to eliminate confusion caused by conflicting taxonomies and to improve global coordination in bird research and conservation.
- Standalone feature: AviList replaces separate resources like the IOC World Bird List and the Clements Checklist with a single, consensus-based taxonomy.
- Accessibility: It is freely available at www.avilist.org and will be updated annually to reflect the latest scientific consensus.
- Target Users: AviList supports ornithologists, birdwatchers, conservationists, researchers, and policymakers globally.
Key Features of AviList:
- Standardized Taxonomy: Combines inputs from global and regional checklists to ensure taxonomic consistency.
- Comprehensive Coverage: Lists 11,131 species, 19,879 subspecies, 2,376 genera, 252 families, and 46 orders.
- Consensus-Driven Process: Taxonomic decisions are made through structured milestone assessments and expert committee voting.
- Transparency in Changes: Provides clear justifications for taxonomic updates, especially those involving disputed species.
- Living Document: Designed to evolve continuously with new scientific discoveries and updates.
- Conservation Impact: Helps improve biodiversity assessments and conservation planning by clarifying species boundaries.
| [UPSC 2015] With reference to an organization known as ‘BirdLife International’, consider the following statements:
1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations.
2.The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ originated from this organization.
3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Indian Army has deployed it’s contingent to participate in Exercise KHAAN QUEST 2025, a major multinational peacekeeping exercise being held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
Concurrently, India is also set to conduct Exercise SHAKTI 2025 with France.
About Exercise KHAAN QUEST, 2025:
- Overview: It is a multinational peacekeeping military exercise being held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia from June 14 to 28, 2025.
- Origins: The exercise was initiated in 2003 as a bilateral drill between the United States and Mongolian Armed Forces and became a multinational event in 2006.
- Indian Participation: India has sent a 40-member contingent, primarily from the Kumaon Regiment, along with personnel from other arms and services, including one woman officer and two women soldiers.
- Focus: The exercise trains troops for Peacekeeping Missions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which deals with action regarding threats to peace and acts of aggression.
- Key Training Drills: Participating forces will engage in checkpoint establishment, cordon and search operations, civilian evacuation from conflict zones, counter-IED tactics, and combat casualty care.
- Objectives: The main goal is to build interoperability, promote joint planning, and strengthen tactical coordination among different participating nations.
About Exercise SHAKTI, 2025:
- Overview: It is a bilateral military drill between India and France, scheduled to take place at La Cavalerie, France, from June 18 to July 1, 2025.
- Exercise Series: This marks the 8th edition of the biennial joint exercise, reflecting a strong and ongoing defence partnership between the two nations.
- Objectives: The drill focuses on enhancing the joint capability to conduct multi-domain operations, especially in sub-conventional warfare scenarios.
- Core Training Areas: It includes sessions on tactical coordination, joint operational planning, and counter-terrorism techniques.
- Goals: To deepen military cooperation, foster mutual trust, and build interoperability and camaraderie between the Indian and French armed forces.
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| [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare is set to launch CROPIC (Collection of Real Time Observations & Photo of Crops)- a digital initiative that uses field photography and AI-based models to monitor crop health and automate loss assessment.
What is CROPIC?
- Overview: CROPIC is a digital initiative launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
- Objective: The aim of CROPIC is to monitor crop health, assess crop losses, and assist with insurance payouts under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).
- Technology Integration: It leverages field photography, artificial intelligence, and a cloud-based analysis system to streamline crop monitoring.
- Process: CROPIC is designed to automate the crop loss assessment process and improve the transparency and speed of compensation to farmers.
- Pilot Timeline: The initiative will be piloted during Kharif 2025 and Rabi 2025–26, and expanded nationwide in 2026.
- Implementation: The project is funded through the Fund for Innovation and Technology (FIAT) under PMFBY, which has an allocation of ₹825 crore.
Key Features of CROPIC:
- Mobile App-Based Data Collection: Crops are photographed 4–5 times per season using the CROPIC mobile app, with images collected by farmers and field officials.
- Crowdsourced Inputs: Real-time photographs are crowdsourced directly from the field, ensuring up-to-date and location-specific crop data.
- AI-Based Photo Analysis: Images are uploaded to a cloud platform, where AI algorithms analyze them to detect:
- Crop type and stage
- Health status
- Visible damage or stress
- Web-Based Dashboard: Processed data is presented on a visual dashboard for use by government officials and policymakers.
- Insurance Integration: During claim processing under PMFBY, officials use the app to gather photographic evidence, automating crop loss verification.
- Crop Signature Database: CROPIC will help build a digital image library of crop types, aiding future research and development in agricultural analytics.
| [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
A new study from researchers at IISER Bhopal has revealed how a single protein called BBX32 helps plants time the critical moment they emerge from darkness into light.
What is BBX32?
- Function: BBX32 is a plant protein that helps a seedling keep its protective hook closed as it pushes through the soil.
- Protection Mechanism: The hook shape shields the soft shoot tip in darkness; BBX32 extends this protection until it’s safe to open.
- Ethylene Activation: Underground, the plant hormone ethylene activates the BBX32 gene, signaling the seedling to stay protected.
How does it work?
- Light Stabilization: Once exposed to light, BBX32 is no longer broken down, allowing it to accumulate on one side of the hook.
- Protein Chain Reaction: BBX32 activates PIF3, which then activates HLS1, the protein that directly keeps the hook bent.
- Lab Testing: Plants were tested in different light types and sand to simulate real soil. Extra ethylene increased BBX32 activity.
- Mutant Comparison: Plants without BBX32 opened too early. Only 25% broke through sand, compared to 40% of normal and 80% with extra BBX32.
- Degradation Control: In darkness, COP1 breaks down BBX32. Ethylene slows this process. Light fully stabilizes BBX32.
- Coordinated Timing: The protein’s behavior is guided by light, hormone signals, and pressure, ensuring the hook opens at the right time.
Why is studying BBX32 important?
- Better Crop Survival: BBX32 can help develop crops that grow well in dense, wet, or compacted soils.
- Climate Adaptation: As climate change leads to tougher soil conditions, BBX32 can improve seedling emergence and survival.
- Boosting Yields: Supporting hook protection even slightly longer can lead to stronger early growth and higher productivity.
- Genetic Research: BBX32 is a potential target for gene editing in plants to improve resilience during germination.
- Broader Insight: Studying BBX32 helps us understand how plants balance internal signals with external cues for safe growth.
| [UPSC 2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhabit water loss?
1. Hard and waxy leaves 2. Tiny leaves 3. Thorns instead of leaves
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
India is serving as a Vice President to the 2nd Session of the International Organization for Marine Aids to Navigation (and Lighthouse Activities) (IALA) Council held in Nice, France.
About IALA:
- Overview: It is the global authority headquartered near Paris, France, responsible for standardizing and harmonizing marine aids to navigation (AtoN), including lighthouses, buoys, and electronic navigation systems.
- Establishment: IALA was founded in 1957 as a non-governmental organization and officially became an intergovernmental organization (IGO) on August 22, 2024, following ratification by 34 countries.
- Mission: Its mission is to ensure safe, efficient, and environmentally sustainable maritime navigation by promoting uniform standards, modern technology, and global cooperation.
- Relevance: IALA plays a crucial role in reducing maritime accidents, protecting marine environments, and supporting developing nations through training and technical assistance.
Structure and Features:
- Membership: The organization consists of 80+ member countries, along with commercial maritime companies, training institutions, and scientific bodies.
- General Assembly: The supreme decision-making body, which meets every four years to define broad policies and strategic direction.
- Council: The executive body composed of 24 elected members, meeting twice annually to oversee day-to-day governance and technical progress.
- Technical Committees: Specialized groups focused on areas such as digital navigation technologies, marine engineering, Vessel Traffic Services (VTS), and sustainable navigation systems.
- Key Innovations:
- Maritime Buoyage System: Unified over 30 local buoyage systems into two global regions (Region A and Region B).
- Pioneered technologies like Differential GPS (DGPS), Automatic Identification Systems (AIS), VHF Data Exchange System (VDES), and e-navigation frameworks.
- Global Partnerships: IALA works closely with international bodies like the IMO (International Maritime Organization), IHO (International Hydrographic Organization), and ITU (International Telecommunication Union).
India and IALA:
- Founding Member: India is a founding member of IALA and has been a Council member since 1980, represented by the Directorate General of Lighthouses and Lightships (DGLL).
- Infrastructure Contributions: India has implemented Integrated Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) across 12 major ports, enhancing navigational safety and efficiency.
- Upcoming Hosting: India will host the 3rd IALA General Assembly in December 2025 and the IALA Conference in 2027, both scheduled to take place in Mumbai.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following in respect of the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS):
1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.
2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Sri Lanka is celebrating Poson Poya festival which commemorates the arrival of Buddhism over 2,000 years ago.
About Poson Poya Festival:
- Overview: Poson Poya is the second most important Buddhist festival in Sri Lanka, following Vesak in religious significance.
- Date of Observance: It is celebrated on the full moon day of June, which corresponds to the seventh month of the Sinhalese calendar.
- Historical Commemoration: The festival marks the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in 236 BCE, when Arahat Mahinda, son of Emperor Ashoka, met King Devanampiyatissa at Mihintale.
- Key Locations: Celebrations are held across the island, with the most sacred observances taking place at Mihintale and Anuradhapura.
- Ritual Activities: Devotees engage in temple visits, meditation, offerings, and acts of charity (Dana) as part of spiritual practice.
- Cultural Expressions: Communities organize free food stalls (Dansalas), decorate homes and streets with lanterns, and display illuminated panels of Buddhist stories.
How did Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka?
- Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
- The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
- After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
- Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
- She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
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| [UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:
Options: (a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya * (d) Lalitavistra |
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister paid tributes to Sant Kabir Das on his birth anniversary.
About Sant Kabir:
- Birth: Sant Kabir was likely born between 1398 and 1440 in Kashi (Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh) and passed away in 1518. According to legend, he was born to a Brahmin widow and later adopted by a Muslim couple, Niru and Nima.
- Early Life: He was raised in the julaha (weaver) community, Kabir’s upbringing among the socially marginalized deeply shaped his teachings on equality and anti-casteism.
- Spiritual Awakening: Though raised in a Muslim household, Kabir became a disciple of Swami Ramananda, a Vaishnava Bhakti saint, and was also influenced by Sufi mysticism, particularly through Shaikh Taqqi.
- Death: Kabir died in Maghar (Uttar Pradesh) in 1518.
- Legacy Site: Legend says his body miraculously vanished, leaving only flowers, which were divided between Hindus and Muslims. Today, a temple and a dargah stand at his burial site.
His Teachings, Literary Style, and Cultural Impact:
- Poetic Style: Kabir wrote in a mix of Hindi, Khari Boli, Bhojpuri, Punjabi, Urdu, Persian, and Marwari. His most famous compositions are Dohe (couplets) and Pads (devotional songs), noted for their simplicity, spiritual insight, and bold social critique.
- Advocacy: He was a strong proponent of Nirguna Bhakti, the worship of a formless, attributeless God. He referred to this divine presence as Ram, Allah, or Shabda, emphasizing that God transcends name and form.
- Spiritual Themes: Kabir’s work reflects non-dualism (Advaita) from the Upanishads and monotheism (Tawhid) from Islam. He believed that salvation lies in inner realization, not through scriptures, priests, or rituals.
- Opposition to Ritualism: He condemned idolatry, pilgrimage, fasting, and caste-based discrimination, urging people to seek God within themselves.
- Social Reform Focus: Kabir stood firmly for social equality, rejecting casteism and religious divisions. His verses challenged orthodoxy and critiqued hollow practices in every community.
- Influence on Sikhism and Bhakti Movement: His poems are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, highlighting his impact on Sikhism. He also inspired spiritual figures like Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal, and Jiwan Das.
- Cultural Legacy: The Kabir Panth, a spiritual tradition based on his teachings, has over 9.6 million adherents today. Kabir is respected in Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism alike.
| [2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
As part of his upcoming two-week stay on the International Space Station (ISS) under Axiom-4 Mission, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will conduct the Voyager Tardigrades experiment.
What are Tardigrades?
- Tardigrades, also called “water bears” or “moss piglets”, are microscopic aquatic animals that have existed for around 600 million years.
- They are about 0.5 mm long, with four pairs of clawed legs and a specialized mouth for sucking nutrients from plant cells and tiny invertebrates.
- Tardigrades live in diverse habitats, including mosses, lichens, mountaintops, ocean depths, and even Antarctica.
- They are famous for their extreme resilience, having survived all five major mass extinction events and capable of enduring conditions that would kill most other life forms.
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About Voyager Tardigrades Experiment:
- Overview: The experiment will be conducted by Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla during his mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS).
- Experimental Process: Tardigrades will be transported in their dormant “tun” state, then revived and observed in microgravity conditions.
- Research Focus: The experiment will examine how space radiation and microgravity affect tardigrade survival, reproduction, and DNA repair mechanisms.
- Scientific Objective: Researchers aim to identify genes responsible for space resilience in tardigrades and apply these insights to enhance astronaut protection and preserve biological materials during long-term space travel.
Significance of Tardigrades in Space Research:
- Extreme Survivors: They are among the most resilient organisms on Earth, capable of surviving temperatures from near absolute zero to over 150°C, intense radiation, deep-sea pressure, and even the vacuum of space.
- Dormancy Mechanisms: Their survival strategy relies on cryptobiosis and anhydrobiosis, where their metabolism drops nearly to zero and water content is drastically reduced.
- Protective Proteins: They produce unique proteins like CAHS, which form a gel-like matrix around cells to protect them from damage in extreme environments.
- Biomedical Applications: Studying these proteins may help scientists develop radiation shields for astronauts, preserve human tissues and organs, and advance cryopreservation techniques.
- Agricultural and Material Use: Insights from tardigrades could also lead to engineering drought-resistant crops and designing new biomaterials for use on Earth and in space.
| [UPSC 2012] Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created?
1. To enable them to withstand drought
2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce
3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations
4. To increase their shelf life.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the news?
Researchers from Rockefeller University introduced MagIC, a new method that allows cryo-EM to work with samples up to 100 times more dilute, making it easier to study rare or hard-to-purify molecules.
About Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM):
- Cryo-EM is a powerful microscope method used by scientists to see the 3D shapes of very small things like proteins, viruses, and cell parts.
- In cryo-EM:
- The sample is frozen very fast to keep it in its natural shape.
- An electron beam is used instead of light to capture detailed images at extremely cold temperatures.
- It helps in:
- Understanding how diseases work
- Designing new medicines
- Studying cell processes
- Problem: Cryo-EM usually needs a lot of the molecule to work well.
- If the sample is too dilute (too weak), it’s hard to get good images.
- Why MagIC helps: It solves this big problem by concentrating and organizing particles using magnetism and smart software, making cryo-EM work even for rare or tiny amounts of molecules.
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What is MagIC (Magnetic Isolation and Concentration cryo-EM)?
- Overview: It is a new method developed by scientists in the U.S. to make it easier to study rare biological molecules under a special microscope called cryo-EM.
- Sampling involved: Normally, cryo-EM needs the molecules in a sample to be very concentrated, which is hard when the molecules are rare or hard to collect.
- MagIC solves this problem by using:
- Tiny magnetic beads (50 nanometers wide) that stick to the molecules researchers want to study.
- A magnet that pulls these beads together into one area.
- This way, even when the solution has less than 0.0005 milligrams per milliliter of the molecules, scientists can still get useful images.
Key Features of MagIC:
- Magnetic Pulling: After molecules stick to the tiny magnetic beads, a magnet pulls them into clusters, making them easier to see.
- Low Sample Requirement: Only 5 nanograms of sample per grid are needed. That’s a very tiny amount—much less than earlier methods.
- Faster Imaging: The magnetic beads are easy to see, so scientists can quickly find areas with useful particles in the microscope.
- Smart Software – DuSTER (Duplicated Selection to Exclude Rubbish):
- It helps remove bad or blurry images and keep only the clear ones.
- It picks each particle twice and only keeps it if the location matches both times.
- MagIC works with samples that are 100 times more dilute than what cryo-EM could handle before.
| [UPSC 2023] ‘Aerial metagenomics’ best refers to which one of the following situations?
Options: (a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at one go* (b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian species of a habitat (c) Using air-borne devices to colect blood samples from moving animals (d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect plant and animal samples from land surfaces and water bodies |
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Why in the News?
According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) report titled “State of the World Population 2025: The Real Fertility Crisis”, India’s population has reached an estimated 146.39 crore, officially making it the world’s most populous nation.
About United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA):
- Origin: The organisation was established in 1969 as the UN Fund for Population Activities and renamed in 1987 as the UN Population Fund.
- Headquarters: Its global headquarters is located in New York.
- Mission Statement: UNFPA works to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe, and every young person’s potential is fulfilled.
- Mandate: To promote sexual and reproductive health and rights, including family planning, safe motherhood, and gender equality.
- Governance Structure: UNFPA reports to a 36-member Executive Board, with representation from all regions, and receives guidance from ECOSOC and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
- Global Presence: UNFPA operates in over 150 countries, in coordination with national governments and UN development partners.
- Key Functions: It supports population censuses, family planning programs, and thematic health surveys, and engages in interagency frameworks like UN Development Group (UNDG) and UN Chief Executives Board (CEB).
- Technical Role: UNFPA also provides research funding, technical assistance, and advocacy support to promote reproductive health and demographic planning.
Key Population Trends from the UNFPA Report (2025):
- Data Sources: The report draws on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), and projections from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA).
- India’s Population: As of 2025, India’s population is estimated at 146.39 crore (1.4639 billion), making it the most populous country in the world.
- China’s Population: China’s population now stands at 141.61 crore (1.4161 billion), placing it second.
- Total Fertility Rate: India’s TFR has declined to 1.9, which is below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a trend toward population stabilisation.
- Population Forecast: India’s population is expected to peak at around 170 crores in the coming decades and begin to decline within 40 years.
- Life Expectancy: As of 2025, the average life expectancy is 71 years for men and 74 years for women.
- Age Distribution: 68% of Indians are in the working-age group (15–64), while 7% are aged 65 and above, with life expectancy at 71 years (men) and 74 years (women).
Back2Basics: Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
- TFR measures the average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.
- A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, where each generation replaces itself without growing or shrinking.
- According to the 2021 Sample Registration System by the Registrar General of India, the TFR had already reached 2.0, indicating that India had attained replacement level fertility nationally.
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| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given abova is/are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.
What are Neutrinos?
- Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
- They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
- Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
- They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
- Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
- Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.
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About KATRIN Experiment:
- What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
- Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
- Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
- Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.
How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?
- KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
- A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
- By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.
India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:
- Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
- INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
- Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
- Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
- Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
| [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.
4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 * |
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Why in the News?
At the Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, India made a powerful case for urgent international cooperation to protect the world’s oceans.
About United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC)
- What is it: The UNOC is a major international forum dedicated to supporting Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14): Life Below Water.
- Primary Focus: It promotes the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine resources.
- Multi-Stakeholder Participation: UNOC brings together governments, NGOs, academia, intergovernmental organizations, private companies, and Indigenous communities to address ocean-related challenges.
- Key Themes: The conference tackles issues like marine pollution, overfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation, and encourages policy coordination and financial pledges.
- Timeline of Conferences:
- 2017: First conference in New York, co-hosted by Fiji and Sweden
- 2022: Second in Lisbon, co-hosted by Portugal and Kenya
- 2025: Third in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica
- 2028: Fourth conference to be hosted by Chile and South Korea (yet to be announced officially)
- Legal Framework: UNOC operates within the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- Financial and Policy Impact: Since 2014, UNOC has mobilized over $130 billion and generated 2,160+ voluntary commitments toward protecting ocean health.
Major Indian Initiatives Showcased at UNOC3 (2025):
- Deep Ocean Mission: India showcased progress on the ‘Samudrayaan’ mission, a deep-sea manned submersible targeting 6,000-meter depth by 2026.
- Plastic Pollution Action: India emphasized the national ban on single-use plastics and the ‘Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar’ campaign, which has cleaned 1,000+ km of coastline and removed over 50,000 tonnes of plastic waste. A draft Marine Litter Policy has been prepared and India strongly supports a Global Plastics Treaty.
- Blue Economy Development: Under the Sagarmala Programme, $80 billion has been invested in port-led infrastructure. An additional $2.5 billion has been deployed under PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, leading to a 10% rise in fish production and creation of 1,000+ fish farmer producer organizations.
- Marine Biodiversity Efforts: India expanded Marine Protected Areas to 6.6% of its Exclusive Economic Zone and restored over 10,000 hectares of mangroves.
- Marine Data Transparency: India launched the SAHAV Portal, a digital ocean governance platform for science-based and transparent decision-making.
- International Leadership: India co-led the ‘Blue Talks’ with France and Costa Rica, participated in high-level panels, and advocated for equitable ocean data access and capacity-building in developing nations.
Back2Basics: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- UNCLOS is a global treaty that regulates all maritime activities and ocean space.
- It defines maritime zones such as: Internal Waters (within the baseline), Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zone (up to 24 nautical miles), Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (up to 200 nautical miles), High Seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction.
- It came into force in 1994 and has 169 parties (as of 2024), including India, but not the U.S.
- It established the International Seabed Authority and declared the deep seabed as the “common heritage of mankind.”
- India ratified UNCLOS in 1995 and uses it to claim maritime rights, including its extended continental shelf.
- It supports freedom of navigation and advocates for a rules-based maritime order under UNCLOS.
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| [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
A new study warns that HKU5 bat coronaviruses, closely related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are just one mutation away from infecting humans.
Back2Basics: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
- Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
- It is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels.
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About HKU5 Virus and Its Characteristics:
- Classification: HKU5 is a bat coronavirus that belongs to the merbecovirus subgenus, which also includes the MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus).
- Origin: It was first identified in the Japanese pipistrelle bat in Hong Kong. “HKU” in the name refers to the University of Hong Kong, where the virus was identified.
- Virology: HKU5 is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, structurally similar to other high-risk coronaviruses.
- Spread: The virus has been detected in bats across Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, indicating widespread natural reservoirs.
- Cell Entry Mechanism: Like SARS-CoV-2, HKU5 uses the ACE2 receptor to infect cells, but current strains bind effectively only to bat ACE2, not human ACE2.
- Recent Developments: In 2025, a new variant called HKU5-CoV-2 was isolated in China, and lab studies show it can infect human airway and gut cells, though less efficiently than SARS-CoV-2.
- Genetic Similarity: HKU5 is genetically close to both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, though it has not yet been detected in humans.
Threats and Risks Associated with HKU5 Virus:
- Near-Human Infectivity: HKU5 is considered just one mutation away from gaining the ability to infect humans via the ACE2 receptor.
- Cross-Species Transmission: Certain HKU5 strains have already jumped into minks, demonstrating its capacity to cross species barriers.
- Pandemic Potential: If HKU5 acquires mutations allowing efficient use of human ACE2, it could pose a significant zoonotic pandemic threat.
- Relation to Deadly Viruses: Its structural similarity to MERS-CoV, which has a 34% fatality rate, places HKU5 in a high-risk category if human infection occurs.
| [UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news concerning which one of the following diseases?
Options: (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu (c) Dengue (d) Swine flu* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.
About Kashmir Merino Sheep:
- Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
- Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
- Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
- Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
- Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.
Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:
- Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
- Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
- Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
- Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
| [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?
Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases |
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Why in the News?
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.
About Arsia Mons Volcano:
- Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
- Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
- Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
- Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
- Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
- Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
- Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.
Its Significance:
- Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
- Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
- Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
- Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.
Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter
- Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
- Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
- Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
- Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
- Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
- Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.
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| [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Despite the imposition of President’s Rule in Manipur, the situation on the ground remains volatile, with fresh instances of violence being reported.
What is President’s Rule?
- About: It is the situation where the central government takes over a state’s administration due to the failure of constitutional machinery, as per Article 356 of the Indian Constitution.
- Historical Origins:
- Article 356 draws from Section 93 of the Government of India Act, 1935, where the British Governor could take over provincial governance.
- First used in 1951 in Punjab and later in 1959 to dismiss Kerala’s elected communist government under Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Indira Gandhi’s tenure saw frequent imposition of President’s Rule, often to topple opposition-ruled states, raising concerns over political misuse.
- Constitutional Articles involved:
- Article 355 mandates the Union to protect states against external aggression and internal disturbance.
- Article 356 empowers the President to impose President’s Rule when a state’s constitutional machinery fails.
- Article 357 allows Parliament to make laws on behalf of the state during President’s Rule.
- Article 365 provides that if a state fails to follow Union directions, it can be deemed as having a breakdown of constitutional governance.
- Grounds for Imposition:
- Under Article 356, if the President is satisfied, based on the Governor’s report or otherwise, that the state cannot function according to constitutional provisions.
- Under Article 365, if a state does not comply with Union directives, it can trigger the presumption of constitutional breakdown.
- Approval and Duration:
- The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months.
- Once approved, it remains in force for 6 months and can be extended in 6-month intervals for up to 3 years.
- Revocation of Rule:
- President’s Rule can be revoked at any time by a new proclamation by the President.
- No parliamentary approval is required for revocation.
Consequences of President’s Rule:
- Effect on State Executive:
- The CM and the Council of Ministers are dismissed immediately.
- The Governor administers the state, often with the help of civil servants or advisors appointed by the President.
- Effect on State Legislature:
- The state assembly may be dissolved or suspended.
- The Parliament assumes the power to legislate on state subjects and to pass the state’s budget.
- During recess, the President can authorize expenditure from the state’s Consolidated Fund.
- All laws passed under President’s Rule remain valid until explicitly repealed by the newly elected assembly.
- Effect on State Judiciary:
- The High Court’s powers and jurisdiction remain unaffected.
- The President cannot assume judicial functions or alter the constitutional status of the judiciary.
- Misuse and Political Abuse:
- Over the decades, Article 356 was used as a political tool by successive central governments to undermine state autonomy.
- It became a controversial provision, criticized for damaging federalism and violating democratic norms.
Judicial Safeguard against arbitrary President’s Rule: S.R. Bommai Case (1994):
- The Supreme Court laid down strict guidelines to prevent the arbitrary use of Article 356.
- The Court ruled that President’s Rule must be based on objective material, not merely the Governor’s report.
- The majority of a state government must be tested on the floor of the assembly, not through the Governor’s personal opinion.
- Importantly, the Court stated that the President’s decision is subject to judicial review, reinforcing constitutional accountability.
- The judgment emphasized that Article 356 should only be used as a last resort, and not as a political weapon.
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| [UPSC 2018] If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then-
Options: (a) the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved (b) the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament* (c) Article 19 is suspended in that State (d) the President can make laws relating to that State |
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Why in the News?
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
- Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
- Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
- Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
- Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
- Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
- Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
- Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
- Archaeological Significance:
- Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
- Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
- A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
- Diet and Food Practices:
- Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
- The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
- Lifestyle and Settlement:
- These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
- They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
- Tool Use:
- Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
- Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
- Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
- Trade and Cultural Links:
- Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
- Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
- Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
- Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
- Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.
Important Features:
- Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
- Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
- Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
- Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
- Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
- Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
- Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.
What is Proton Emission?
- Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
- Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
- Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
- Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
- Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
- Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.
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Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:
- What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
- Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
- Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
- Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
- Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.
Significance of the Discovery:
- Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
- Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
- Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
- Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Centre has launched DIGIPIN, a geo-coded digital address system that aims to bring precision and efficiency to address identification across the country.
Tap to read more about PIN Codes in India.
What is DIGIPIN?
- About: DIGIPIN is a digital address system introduced by the Government of India to improve location identification across the country.
- Development Team: The system was developed by the Department of Posts, in collaboration with IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO.
- Technology Base: It uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data to geo-code each physical location with high accuracy.
- Key Features:
- Accessibility: Users can access their DIGIPIN through the India Post’s online portal, and it works seamlessly on any GPS-enabled device.
- Nature of the System: It is open source, interoperable, and privacy-focused, meaning it is publicly accessible, works across platforms, and does not store personal data.
- Code Format: Each location is assigned a unique 10-character alphanumeric code (e.g., 39J-53M-TJF9) that corresponds to an area of approximately 4×4 square meters.
- Coverage Area: DIGIPIN works across urban, rural, forest, and oceanic regions throughout India, even where no formal addresses exist.
Significance of DIGIPIN:
- Precision Mapping: DIGIPIN enables highly accurate geolocation, even in places without traditional street addresses or house numbers.
- E-Commerce Enhancement: The system boosts last-mile delivery efficiency for platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and other logistics providers.
- Emergency Response: DIGIPIN supports police, ambulance, and fire services in reaching destinations quickly, especially in dense or unmapped areas.
- Public Service Delivery: It improves government outreach by making it easier to deliver welfare schemes, notices, and essential services in remote areas.
- Inclusion of Remote Regions: The system brings digital address visibility to forests, tribal regions, and maritime zones, aiding national mapping efforts.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Aarogya Setu
2. CoWIN
3. DigiLocker
4. DIKSHA
Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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