From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geukensia demissa
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.
About Geukensia demissa
Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel.Â
It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.
Ecological Importance
Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.
Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.
Geukensia demissa:Experimental Deployment and Results
To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.
PYQ:
[2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?
(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills
(b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety
(d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells
Every year on May 5, pulmonary hypertension organizations and groups around the world participate in World Pulmonary Hypertension Day.
What is Pulmonary Hypertension?
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a condition characterized by high blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which are the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs.
This elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries can lead to various symptoms and complications, affecting the heart’s ability to pump blood effectivelyto the lungs and the rest of the body.
Here are some key aspects of pulmonary hypertension:
Causes:
Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (IPAH): In many cases, the exact cause of pulmonary hypertension is unknown, and it is referred to as idiopathic. IPAH is a subtype of PH without an identifiable cause.
Secondary Pulmonary Hypertension: PH can also develop secondary to other underlying conditions, including:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Interstitial lung disease
Sleep apnea
Connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and lupus
Congenital heart diseases
HIV infection
Liver disease (cirrhosis)
Genetic Factors: Some forms of PH may have a genetic component, with mutations in certain genes predisposing individuals to the condition.
Features:
Symptoms: Symptoms of pulmonary hypertension may include:
Shortness of breath, especially during physical activity
Fatigue
Chest pain or pressure
Dizziness or fainting spells
Swelling in the ankles and legs (edema)
Bluish lips or skin (cyanosis)
Diagnostic Tests: Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension typically involves a combination of medical history review, physical examination, and diagnostic tests, including:
Echocardiogram (ECG)
Right heart catheterization
Pulmonary function tests
Chest X-ray
CT scan or MRI of the chest
Blood tests
Treatment: Treatment for pulmonary hypertension aims to relieve symptoms, improve quality of life, and slow disease progression. Treatment options may include:
Medications such as vasodilators, endothelin receptor antagonists, and prostacyclin analogs
Oxygen therapy
Pulmonary rehabilitation
Surgery or a lung transplant in severe cases
Hypertension Control Initiatives in India:
India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI) (2017): It was launched to strengthen the hypertension component of National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) in primary care public sector facilities in India
75/25 initiative (2023): Union Health Ministry announced the initiative- 75 million people with hypertension and diabetes to be put on Standard Care by 2025, through the Primary Health Centres (PHCs).
PYQ:
[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements :â
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.â
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.â
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Right to Equality;
Mains level: Poverty Gap; Issues due to inequality;
Why in the News?Â
Since the Congress Party released its Election Manifesto âNyay Patraâ, the word âredistributionâ has dominated the election discourse.
Arguments against the redistribution of wealth:
Against the fair mean: Wealth redistribution stems from a ‘zero-sum’ thought to reduce economic disparity. However, this approach conflates the process of acquiring wealth with the outcome, potentially penalizing even those who acquired their wealth through fair means.
Hindrance to Economic Growth: Implementing confrontational policies to make the rich poorer can hinder investments and trigger capital flight, which is essential for economic growth. Economic growth is necessary for increasing the overall economic pie and improving prosperity for all.
Measures needed to reduce Inequality:
On Wealth and Inheritance Taxes: Wealth and inheritance taxes are seen as potentially punitive measures that may not effectively address economic inequality. The government needs to focus on fixing systemic issues rather than penalizing the wealthy.
On Policies: Economic growth is emphasized as crucial for addressing inequality. Policies should prioritize investment and avoid hindrances that might deter capital flow.
Job Creation and Labour Market Policies: Jobless growth and imbalance in capital-labour relations contribute to inequality. Labor market-focused policy incentives, such as employment-linked schemes and promoting labor-intensive activities, are proposed to rebalance this skew.
Overhaul of the taxation structure: The taxation system is criticized for burdening the poor and middle class disproportionately compared to corporations. There’s a call for an overhaul of the taxation structure to ensure fairness and simplicity, with a focus on lowering the tax burden for the common person.
Social Welfare Programs: Social welfare programs are deemed essential to provide a safety net for the poor until they can benefit from economic growth. Funding for such programs can come from a combination of faster growth, efficient tax collection, and welfare delivery mechanisms.
Steps taken by the Government:
For addressing Social Inequality
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana- National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): These schemes aim to create additional employment opportunities in both rural and urban areas.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): This scheme provides a legal guarantee for 100 days of employment per year to rural households
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana: This scheme provides affordable housing to the urban and rural poor
For improving Financial Inclusion
Atal Pension Yojana: This pension scheme targets the unorganized sector and private sector employees without pension benefits
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: This scheme aims to provide universal access to banking facilities for all households
For enhancing Access to Basic Necessities
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This scheme provides LPG connections to women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households
Swachh Bharat Mission: This program focuses on providing toilets for every household and cleaning India’s cities and villages
Conclusion: The Indian government implements schemes to reduce inequality. For example targeting financial inclusion, health protection, and economic development to reduce inequality. Beneficiaries include rural and urban poor, low-income families, and women from Below Poverty Line households.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty, and malnutrition be broken through the microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Status of IDU in India;
Mains level: Need for Professional Military Education;
Why in the news?Â
While the nature of war remains constant, its changing character imposes a premium on Military Education and the Academic preparation required to cope with security challenges.
It is reported that Pakistan has created two universities for its armed forces, while China has three but India has no Defence University even though such a university in India was first proposed in 1967.
Need for Professional Military Education:
Inadequacy of RRU: Comparing the Rashtriya Raksha University (RRU) to the IDU is seen as flawed because the RRU’s objectives and curriculum do not specifically address military requirements for managing warfare and executing plans.
Long Overdue Realization: The establishment of the IDU has been delayed, despite its critical importance for defense preparedness, fostering a strategic culture, and promoting inter-service integration.
Rapidly changing the dynamic of Warfare: The dynamic and chaotic nature of warfare, particularly in regions like Europe and West Asia, requires military officers to be able to produce results despite dealing with unclear initial information and rapidly changing circumstances.
Empowerment through PME: To tackle these complex challenges, military officers are empowered through a well-constructed PME continuum. This continuum enhances their abilities to adapt to changing assignments and increasing responsibilities over their long careers.
Parallels with U.S. Evolution: The evolution of PME in the United States, as exemplified by the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 and ‘Ike’ Skelton’s report to the U.S. Congress, serves as an example of the importance of structured military education in enhancing professionalism and preparedness.
Slow Progress in the Establishment of IDU:
Historical Context: The idea of establishing a Defence Services University was proposed as early as 1967 by the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC). This indicates a long-standing recognition of the need for a broad-based education system in the Indian armed forces.
Delays in Implementation: Despite proposals and recommendations dating back to the 1960s and 1980s, significant progress towards establishing the IDU was only made after the Kargil conflict in the late 1990s. Even then, progress remained slow, with ‘in principle’ approval granted in May 2010, several years after the conflict.
Committee Formation: Following the Kargil conflict, a committee chaired by Dr K. Subrahmanyam was established to examine the issue of establishing the IDU. Based on its recommendations, in May 2010, âin principleâ approval was accorded for the setting up of the IDU in Gurgaon. Despite some optimistic reportage in 2017-18, the progress on setting up of the IDU has been rather slow.
Way Forward:
Government Commitment and Funding: The government should prioritize the establishment of the IDU and allocate sufficient funding for its development and infrastructure.
Streamlined Administrative Processes: Efforts should be made to streamline bureaucratic processes involved in setting up the IDU, ensuring that administrative hurdles do not impede progress.
Stakeholder Collaboration: Collaboration between various stakeholders, including the armed forces, government agencies, academic institutions, and industry partners, should be facilitated to expedite the establishment of the IDU.
Mains PYQÂ
Q) Taxila University was one of the oldest universities in the world with which were associated several renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered a university in the modern sense. Discuss.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bordering countries of Sudan;
Mains level: Important issues in the Global world;
Why in the News?Â
The inability of successive governments to articulate a shared vision has resulted in the unfair distribution of wealth and resources in Sudan.
ANKARA, TURKIYE – NOVEMBER 3: An infographic titled ”Sudanese civil war intensifies in the western cities” is created in Ankara, Turkiye on November 3, 2023. Since mid-April, the intensity of the conflicts between the army and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan, which have resulted in nearly 10,000 casualties, shifted from the capital Khartoum and its surroundings to the western cities. (Photo by Yasin Demirci/Anadolu via Getty Images)
Historical background of Conflict:Â
In 1956: The government that came to power in 1956 emphasized an Arab and Islamic identity based on Mahdist principles. It was not representative of diverse communities and demanded compliance, leading to widespread resistance.
In 1989: In 1989, a new government seized control under the National Islamic Front, an alliance between army officers and the Muslim Brotherhood. Omar al-Bashir came to power, supported by Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi, aiming to establish an Islamic state.
In 1991: The government set up an internal security apparatus, arresting and torturing dissenters. It introduced a new penal code in 1991 to impose an Islamization agenda.
In 2003: The al-Bashir (in 2003) regime enlisted Janjaweed militias to quell an insurgency in Darfur. These militias were later designated as the Rapid Support Forces in 2013.
In 2018-19: After protests in 2018 and al-Bashir’s removal in 2019, a transitional military government was established. Despite challenges and a failed coup attempt, a power-sharing agreement was reached, but another coup led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan derailed the democratic transition.
Causes of the present conflict in Sudan:
Deep-rooted Crisis in Governance: The conflict reflects a longstanding crisis within Sudan’s governing structure since gaining independence in 1956, characterized by power struggles and frequent coups.
Identity Crisis and Rebellion: Sudan has experienced numerous rebellions fueled by an identity crisis, with marginalized populations seeking autonomy and fair representation within the state.
Ethnic and Regional Disparities: Sudan comprises of 19 major ethnic groups and about 597 ethnic sub-groups. Since independence, the Sudanese have experienced 35 coups and attempted coups, more than any other African country.
Religious and Political Ideologies: Shifts in government ideologies, such as the establishment of an Islamic state in 1989, have exacerbated tensions and led to further marginalization of certain groups.
Role of Militias: The emergence of paramilitary forces, such as the Rapid Support Forces, has complicated the conflict dynamics, with militias vying for power and control over resources.
Other country’s involvement: External influences, including support from foreign entities like Russia, have played a role in shaping the conflict landscape, particularly in resource-rich regions like Darfur.
Economic Interests: Economic factors, such as control over lucrative industries like gold mining, have contributed to the entrenchment of certain groups in power and fueled conflict dynamics.
Way Forward:
Establish a Civilian-Led Government: Sudan needs to prioritize the establishment of a transparent, civilian-led government that represents the diverse Sudanese populace. This government should ensure inclusivity and participation in decision-making processes.
Disarm and Demobilize Militias: Urgent action is needed to disarm and demobilize militias like the Rapid Support Forces. This will prevent militia dominance over the state and reduce the risk of armed confrontations and conflicts.
International Support for Reconstruction: Sudan requires collaborative efforts from the international community to aid in post-conflict reconstruction. This support can include financial assistance, capacity-building programs, and technical expertise to rebuild infrastructure, institutions, and communities affected by conflict.
Mains PYQÂ
Q Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyse. (UPSC IAS/2013)
The endosymbiotic theory suggests that tiny structures in cells called mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent bacteria.
A biologist named Lynn Margulis came up with the idea that cells merged with bacteria, challenging the usual belief that evolution happens mainly through genetic changes.
 What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?
The endosymbiotic theory proposes that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria engulfed by recipient cells.
American biologist Lynn Margulis introduced Symbiogenesis, challenging the Neo-Darwinist consensus on genetic mutations driving evolution.
Margulisâs Struggle:
Margulis’s manuscript on symbiogenesis faced rejection by academic journals before finally being published in The Journal of Theoretical Biology in 1967.
It took years for mitochondria and chloroplasts to be acknowledged as former free-living bacteria turned endosymbionts.
Recent Discoveries and Endosymbiotic Theory
Recent papers published in Science and Cell have reignited interest in the endosymbiotic theory.
The focus is on nitrogen fixation, crucial for proteins and DNA in living organisms.
Despite abundant atmospheric nitrogen, plants lack the means to utilize it efficiently.
Legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules, aiding in ammonia production for plant use.
Evolution of Nitroplast
Cyanobacterium UCYN-A was found in marine algae, establishing a symbiotic relationship.
Nitroplast, a new organelle, co-evolved with its host cell, satisfying criteria for organelle classification.
Nitroplast integrates into host cell function and architecture, imports host cell proteins, synchronizes growth, and is inherited during cell division.
Nearly half of nitroplast proteins are derived from the host cell.
Nitrogen Cycle:
The nitrogen cycle is a crucial biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation and circulation of nitrogen in various forms within ecosystems. It involves several key steps:
Nitrogen Fixation: This is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3-) ions, which are forms of nitrogen that plants can utilize. Nitrogen fixation can occur through biological, atmospheric, and industrial processes. In biological nitrogen fixation, certain bacteria like Rhizobium spp. in the root nodules of leguminous plants or cyanobacteria convert N2 into ammonia.
Ammonification: Ammonification is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds from dead organisms, feces, and other waste materials are converted into ammonia by decomposer organisms like bacteria and fungi during the decay process.
Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. This process occurs in aerobic conditions and plays a crucial role in making nitrogen available to plants.
Assimilation: Plants and other organisms take up ammonia, nitrate, or organic nitrogen compounds from the soil to use them in synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids, and other vital nitrogen-containing compounds.
Denitrification: Denitrification is the process by which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) by denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic conditions. This step completes the cycle by returning nitrogen to the atmosphere, closing the loop.
Ammonium Ionization: In soils and aquatic environments, ammonium ions (NH4+) may undergo ionization, converting to ammonia gas (NH3), which can volatilize and return to the atmosphere.
Significance of the Nitroplasts
Agriculture: Nitroplasts offer potential solutions for reducing the harmful effects of industrial ammonia production.
Biotechnology: Biotechnological applications may include engineering host cells and nitroplasts for efficient nitrogen fixation in plants.
PYQ:
[2021] In case of which one of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the cycle?â
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower, Halleyâs Comet
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Eta Aquariid meteor shower, an annual event, will reach its peak on May 5 and 6.
This meteor shower is a result of Earth intersecting with the debris trail left by Halley’s Comet during its orbit.
Halleyâs Comet
Halleyâs Comet is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75â79 years.
It was last seen in Earthâs skies in 1986 and was met in space by an international fleet of spacecraft. It will return in 2061 on its regular journey around the Sun.
What are Meteoric Showers?
Meteors, fragments of dust, rock and ice, are expelled from comets during their celestial orbits around the sun.
The Earthâs atmosphere heats these space rocks as they descend, leaving luminous streaks of gas in their way.
NASAâs records confirms existence of over 30 meteor showers annually.
Origin of Meteor Showers:
Meteor showers originate from comets, remnants of the solar system’s formation composed of dust, rock, and ice.
Comets orbit the Sun in highly elliptical paths, and as they approach, they heat up, releasing gases and dust to form a glowing head and a tail stretching millions of miles.
When Earth traverses through the debris left behind by comets along their orbital plane, we witness meteor showers.
About Eta Aquariids
Known for their rapid speed, Eta Aquariid meteors produce long, glowing tails lasting several minutes.
Observers in the SouthernHemisphere can witness approximately 30 to 40 meteors per hour during the peak, while those in the Northern Hemisphere may see around 10 meteors per hour.
They seem to originate from the Aquarius constellation, hence the name ‘Eta Aquariid.’
PYQ:
[2014] What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Hickyâs Bengal Gazette' and related facts
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
World Press Freedom Day, observed annually on May 3, underscores the significance of journalism in society, tracing its roots back to pivotal moments in history.
Hickyâs Bengal Gazette, founded by James Augustus Hicky in 1780, marked the inception of Indian journalism, serving as a platform for social discourse and political critique.
Who was James Augustus Hicky?
Born in Ireland in the 1730s, James Augustus Hicky ventured to India, then known as the “Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire“, in search of better opportunities.
Faced with initial setbacks, including debts that led to his imprisonment, Hicky demonstrated resilience by setting up a printing press within the jail premises.
Establishment of ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’:
‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ was the first newspaper ever published in India (indeed in Asia), with its inaugural edition released on January 29, 1780.
Hicky served as its founder-editor, aiming to cater primarily to the European community in Calcutta.
He initially focusing on local issues such as road repairs and maintenance.
The newspaper later delved into broader societal concerns, including government corruption and civic issues.
Despite its reputation for gossip and salacious content, the Gazette also published articles critical of the British East India Company and advocated for infrastructure development and sanitation improvements.
Hicky’s newspaper was printed once a week on Saturday, and retailed for Rs 1.
Its circulation was estimated to be around 400 copies per week, although possibly more.
Challenges and Legal Battles:
The Gazette faced legal challenges, including multiple libel lawsuits filed by prominent figures such as Governor General Warren Hastings in 1780s and missionary Johann Zacharias Kiernander.
He described Hastings in an article as being Robert Cliveâs âmiserable successorâ.
Hicky’s bold stance against powerful figures, including scathing critiques of Hastings’ expansion policies, led to his imprisonment and financial ruin due to legal fees and penalties.
The publication was ceased on 30 March 1782.
Legacy and Impact:
Despite its eventual closure due to legal pressure and financial constraints, ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ left an indelible mark on Indian journalism.
Hicky’s pioneering efforts laid the groundwork for the development of a vibrant media landscape in India, inspiring subsequent generations of journalists and press pioneers.
The Gazette’s brief but impactful existence demonstrated the power of the press in advocating for societal change and holding the powerful to account.
PYQ:
[2020] The Vital-Vidhwansak, the first monthly journal to have the untouchable people as its target audience was published by:
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NCBC, OBC List
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) has begun a comprehensive review of State OBC Lists to reassess the inclusion of communities benefiting from prolonged advantages.
The NCBC’s scrutiny has led to questioning the overrepresentation of Muslim communities in State OBC lists, particularly in Karnataka and West Bengal.
NCBCâs contention over Over-representation:
Despite repeated requests, states like West Bengal and Karnataka lack current socio-economic data on OBCs, hindering the NCBC’s assessment.
The absence of data complicates the task of justifying continued inclusion in OBC lists.
The NCBC plans to extend its review to Kerala, Odisha, Bihar, Maharashtra, and other states to ensure maximum OBC reservation within the 50% limit.
Who are the Other Backward Classes (OBCs)?
Other Backward Class is a collective term used to classify castes which are educationally or socially disadvantaged.Â
It is one of several official classifications of the population of India, along with General Class, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs).
The OBCs were found to comprise 55% of the countryâs population by the Mandal Commission report of 1980, and were determined to be 41% in 2006.
About National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)
Established
Constitution Amendment Act, 2018 (also known as 102nd Amendment Act, 2018) under Article 338B of the Indian Constitution
Jurisdiction
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India
Purpose
Active participation and advisory role in the socio-economic development of socially backward classes (OBCs).
Evaluating the progress of their development.
Statutory Backing
The outcome of the Indra Sawhney & Others v. Union of India case (16.11.1992)
Composition
Chairperson (MoSJ), Vice-Chairperson, and three other members appointed by the President.
Conditions of service and tenure determined by the President.
Functions and Powers
Inclusions and exclusions in the lists of backward communities for job reservations.
Providing advice to the Central Government.
Investigating and monitoring safeguards for backward classes.
Inquiring into specific complaints related to their rights and safeguards.
Participating in socio-economic development and evaluating progress.
Reports and Recommendations
Annual reports to the President and recommendations for effective implementation of safeguards.
Recommendations for measures to protect, welfare, and socio-economic development of backward classes.
Other Functions
Discharging functions specified by the President and subject to parliamentary laws
Constitutional Amendment
102nd Constitutional Amendment Act (2018) empowered NCBC to address grievances of Other Backward Classes
PYQ:
[2022] Discuss the role of the National Commission for Backward Classes in the wake of its transformation from a statutory body to a constitutional body.
[2016] Why are the tribals in India referred to as âthe Scheduled Tribesâ? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Artile 361
Mains level: What are the provisions related to the Governor in the Indian Constitution?
Why in the News?Â
Even as a complaint alleging sexual harassment has been filed in Kolkata against West Bengal Governor C V Ananda Bose, Constitutional immunity bars the police from naming the Governor as an accused or even investigating the case.
What is Article 361?Â
Article 361 of the Constitution that deals with immunity to the President and the Governors states that they âshall not be answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers and duties of his office or for any act done or purporting to be done by him in the exercise and performance of those powers and duties”.
The provision also has two crucial sub-clauses:Â
(1) that no criminal proceedings whatsoever shall be initiated or continued against the President, or the Governor of a State, in any court during the term of his office.
(2) No process for the arrest or imprisonment of the President, or the Governor of a State, shall issue from any court during his term of office.
Immunity power of the Governor:
Ceases to be in office: The police can act only after the Governor ceases to be in office, which is when either the Governor resigns or no longer enjoys the confidence of the President.âÂ
Rameshwar Prasad v Union of India: In the landmark 2006 ruling in Rameshwar Prasad v Union of India, that outlined the immunity enjoyed by the Governor âeven on allegation of personal malafides,â the Supreme Court held that âthe position in law, is that the Governor enjoys complete immunity.â
In 2017, criminal conspiracy in the 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid case: The trial did not take place for former UP Chief Minister Kalyan Singh since he was then the Governor of Rajasthan.
Constitutional Provisions:
Appointment: The Governor is appointed by the President of India and holds office during the pleasure of the President (Article 155).
Qualifications: The Governor must be a citizen of India, must be at least 35 years old, and must not hold any office of profit (Article 157).
Powers and Functions: The Governor is the constitutional head of a state and performs various functions including:
Executive Functions: The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other Council of Ministers, and allocates portfolios among them (Article 164).
Legislative Functions: The Governor summons and prorogues the state legislature, addresses it, and lays down its policy. He/she also has the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly (Article 174).
Financial Functions: The Governor causes to be laid before the State Legislature the Annual Financial Statement (budget) and has powers related to money bills (Article 202).
Discretionary Powers: The Governor has discretionary powers in certain matters, such as appointing the Chief Minister when no party has a clear majority after elections (Article 164).
Relation with the Union: The Governor is appointed by the President and acts as a link between the state and the Union. He/she can send reports to the President regarding the administration of the state (Article 356).
Oath or Affirmation: Before entering office, the Governor must take an oath or affirmation according to the form set out in the Third Schedule of the Constitution (Article 159).
Conclusion:Â
Article 361 of the Indian Constitution provides immunity to the President and Governors from court proceedings and arrest during their term. Police action against a Governor can only occur after they cease office.
Mains PYQÂ
Q Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SDGs
Mains level: Why the world is not on track to achieve most SDGs by 2030?
Why in the News?Â
2024 is an election year across the world and newly elected governments need to focus on the all-important sustainability issue. Year 2024 is an election year across the world.
At least 64 countries, both developed and developing, accounting for 49% of the world population, will go to the polls.
Causes of Global Slow Progress:Â
Impact of Global Crises: The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and other global crises virtually halted progress towards the SDGs. These crises have diverted attention and resources away from sustainable development efforts.
Neglect of Environmental Goals: There has been little to no attention towards goals related to the environment and biodiversity, including responsible consumption and production, climate action, life below water, and life on land.
Defiance of Integrated Nature of SDGs: The current practice of pursuing SDGs is criticized for defying the integrated and indivisible nature of the goals. This lack of integration hampers efforts to achieve sustainable development outcomes comprehensively.
Risk of Environmental Degradation: The slow progress and neglect of environmental goals pose a significant risk of accelerated environmental degradation. This threatens the overarching target of balancing human well-being and a healthy environment.
Why the world is not on track to achieve most SDGs by 2030?
Insufficient Progress: Despite reaffirmations of commitment by world leaders, progress towards achieving the SDGs remains slow. The world is only on track to meet 15% of the 169 targets that comprise the 17 goals.
Investment Gap: There is a significant gap in investment for SDGs, particularly in developing countries. The estimated investment gap exceeds $4 trillion, with nearly $2 trillion needed for the energy transition alone.
Lack of Synergistic Action: There is a lack of synergistic action in addressing SDGs, despite the integrated nature of the goals. Few studies and empirical evidence exist on the synergies and trade-offs among SDGs, hindering progress.
Barriers to Synergies: Various barriers, including knowledge gaps, political and institutional barriers, and economic issues, impede synergistic action.Inadequate data collection, and an inability to attribute co-benefits to specific actions hinder progress.
Misaligned Policies: Policies may be misaligned, leading to barriers for meeting greater targets. For example, ambitious renewable energy targets may not align with smaller-scale of steps taken to achieve SDG goal.
Limited Understanding of Cost Estimation: Exploiting resources without considering climate change impacts and synergistic opportunities can be detrimental to national and global efforts.
Way forward:
Call for Action: There is a call for action to strengthen the environment for synergistic action, transparently identify opportunities and limits to synergies, and develop reporting frameworks to assess the value created from specific SDG interventions.
Urgent Action Areas Identified: The UN SDG Report, 2023 identified five key areas for urgent action, including commitments of governments, concrete policies to eradicate poverty and reduce inequality, strengthening of national and subnational capacity, recommitment of the international community, and strengthening of the UN development system.
Global Reaffirmation and Commitment: World leaders acknowledged the situation and reaffirmed their commitments to delivering the SDGs by 2030. However, the effectiveness of these global pronouncements at the ground level remains uncertain.
Mains PYQÂ
Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Diplomatic Passport
Mains level: Operational Visa Exemption Agreements
Why in the news?Â
After allegations of sexual abuse by Janata Dal (Secular) MP Prajwal Revanna came to light, the politician fled to Germany on a Diplomatic Passport.
What is a Diplomatic Passport?Â
The normal passports, which have dark blue covers and are valid for 10 years (for adults) while the diplomatic passports have maroon covers, and are valid for five years or less.
Holders of such passports are entitled to certain privileges and immunities as per international law, including immunity from arrest, detention, and certain legal proceedings in the host country.
Who can get a Diplomatic Passport?
Diplomatic Status: Individuals with diplomatic status, such as diplomats representing the country abroad, are eligible for diplomatic passports.
Government-Appointed Officials: Government-appointed individuals travelling abroad for official business can receive diplomatic passports.
Officers of Indian Foreign Service (IFS): Officers working under branches A and B of the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), typically at the rank of Joint Secretary and above, are entitled to diplomatic passports.
Relatives of IFS and MEA Officers: Relatives and immediate family members of officers employed in the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) are eligible for diplomatic passports.
Authorized Individuals for Official Travel: Select individuals authorized to undertake official travel on behalf of the government, such as union ministers and Members of Parliament (MPs), may receive diplomatic passports. The validity of these passports is concurrent with the term of the MP.
Surrender of Diplomatic Passport by MPs:Â
Individuals who are disqualified from their positions, such as MPs, are required to surrender their diplomatic passports. For example, Congress leader Rahul Gandhi surrendered his diplomatic passport after being disqualified as an MP.
Why did Prajwal Revanna not need a visa to travel to Germany?
Operational Visa Exemption Agreements: India has operational visa exemption agreements with certain countries, including Germany, for holders of diplomatic passports. These agreements allow diplomatic passport holders to travel to these countries without requiring a visa, provided their stay does not exceed 90 days.
Reciprocal Deal with Germany: A reciprocal deal signed in 2011 between India and Germany exempts holders of Indian diplomatic passports from obtaining a visa for travel to Germany.
 India has similar agreements with other countries, such as France, Austria, Afghanistan, Czech Republic, Italy, Greece, Iran, and Switzerland, where diplomatic passport holders are exempted from visa requirements.
Operational Visa Exemption for Other Passport Holders: India also has agreements with 99 other countries where not only diplomatic passport holders but also those holding service and official passports can avail of operational visa exemption for stays up to 90 days.
Countries in this list include Bahrain, Brazil, Egypt, Hong Kong, Oman, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates.
Despite not needing a visa, Prajwal Revanna should have applied for prior political clearance for his private visit to Germany. Members using a diplomatic passport are required to apply for political clearance directly to the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) before proceeding abroad.
Who can revoke a Diplomatic Passport?
Court Order Requirement: The government can revoke a diplomatic passport only after a court order to that effect. The relevant provisions of the Passport Act 1967 stipulate that revocation of a diplomatic passport may occur upon orders from a court during proceedings concerning an offence allegedly carried out by the passport holder before a criminal court.
Passport Authority’s Discretion: The Passport Act empowers the passport authority to impound or revoke a passport under various circumstances. These include instances where the holder is in wrongful possession of the passport or obtained it by suppressing material information or in the interests of India’s sovereignty and integrity or friendly relations with foreign countries.
Conviction by Indian Court: A diplomatic passport can be revoked if the holder has been convicted by a court in India and sentenced to imprisonment for not less than two years.
What is the Henley Passport Index?
The Henley Passport Index is a renowned ranking system that assesses the strength of passports based on the number of destinations their holders can access without a prior visa.
It utilizes data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and is enhanced by Henley & Partners’ research team.
In the latest 2024 ranking, India’s rank has slipped one place to 85th, despite the number of visa-free destinations increasing to 62 countries
Way forward
Enhanced Oversight and Accountability: Implement stricter oversight mechanisms to monitor the issuance and use of diplomatic passports. Regular audits and reviews can help identify any discrepancies or misuse.
Strict Enforcement of Surrender Rules: Enforce existing rules mandating the surrender of diplomatic passports by individuals who are disqualified from their positions, such as Members of Parliament.
Mains PYQÂ
Q Analyse the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the agreement.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: DV Act 2005 and its key provisions
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
A recent question before the Supreme Court compelled it to deliberate on whether damages for domestic violence should be determined based on the injuries sustained by the victim or the perpetrator’s ability to pay.
The petitioner contested orders from the Bombay High Court and a trial court directing him to pay Rs 3 crore to his wife under Section 22 of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
Domestic Violence Law: An Overview
The DV Act, 2005 aims to safeguard women’s rights by addressing violence within the family.
Key Features of the DV Act:
Details
Background
Introduced in 2005 to address limitations in civil and criminal courts regarding domestic violence (under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code).
Definitions of Violence
Includes physical, sexual, emotional, verbal, psychological, and economic abuse (Section 3).
Even a single act of harm or injury qualifies as domestic violence.
Beneficiaries
Any woman in a domestic relationship (Section 2).
Children can also file complaints, and any person can file on their behalf (Section 2).
Respondents
Adult male members in domestic relationships (Section 2).
Relatives of the husband or male partner can also be respondents (Section 2).
Rights to Residence
Women cannot be denied access to resources during legal proceedings (Section 17).
Other Rights
Access to police, shelter, medical aid, and legal assistance.
Can obtain various court orders, including protection, residence, and compensation orders (Section 18).
Remedial Measures
Victims entitled to medical facilities, counseling, and shelter (Section 12).
Both parties may receive counseling as directed by the court (Section 14).
Respondents required to provide compensation for losses incurred by the victim (Section 20).
Courts to order respondents to pay damages for injuries, including mental and emotional trauma, resulting from domestic violence (Section 22).
Protection Officers
Appointment of officers in each district, preferably women, with necessary qualifications (Section 8).
Fixed Timeline
All complaints must be heard and disposed of within 60 days (Section 12).
PYQ:
[2022] Explore and evaluate the impact of âWork From Homeâ on family relationships.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Garo Hills
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Geological Survey of India (GSI) explorers have made a breakthrough, uncovering ancient fossils in Tolegre, South Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
It is speculated that the fossils could be linked to the genera Rhodocetus or Amulocetus (now extinct), considered ancestors of modern whales.
About Garo Hills
The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya, are part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the hill ranges in the northeastern region of India.
They are situated in the western part of Meghalaya, bordering Bangladesh to the south and west.
The terrain of the Garo Hills is rugged and hilly, characterized by dense forests, steep slopes, and deep valleys.
The Nokrek is highest Peak, which stands at approximately 1,415 meters (4,642 feet) above sea level.
The climate in the Garo Hills is typically humid subtropical, with heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, which usually lasts from June to September.
Numerous rivers and streams, including the Brahmaputra, Someshwari, and Jinjiram rivers crisscross this region.
The region is also known for its picturesque waterfalls, such as the Pelga Falls, located near Tura, the largest town in the Garo Hills.
The Nokrek National Park, located within, is recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and is home to various endangered species, including the Asian elephant and the red panda.
The Garo Hills are inhabited predominantly by the Garo tribe, one of the major ethnic groups in Meghalaya.
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following pairs:
1. Nokrek Bio-Sphere Reserve : Garo Hills
2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park: Daphla Hills
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NCART
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Centre is contemplating the establishment of the National Council for Agriculture and Rural Transformation (NCART), envisioned as a federal body to formulate policies and programs for the agricultural sector.
What is NCART?
The NCART is a proposed federal body aimed at coordinating and driving actions in the agriculture sector in India.
It would have representation of both the Centre and States.
The idea for NCART has been proposed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmersâ Welfare as part of its 100-day action plan for the new government.
It draws inspiration from the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council.
Terms of Reference of NCART:
Policy Formulation: NCART is envisioned as an overarching federal body responsible for devising policies and programs to promote agricultural and rural development.
Coordination: One of the key objectives of NCART is to ensure coordinated actions across various stakeholders involved in the agriculture sector, including the central government, state governments, and other relevant entities.
Consultative Body: NCART is expected to include representation from both the central and state governments, similar to the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council, to ensure a consultative approach in decision-making.
Legal Status: While the GST Council is a constitutional body, the exact status of NCART is yet to be finalized.
Indiaâs Agriculture Expenses:
Despite agriculture being a state subject, the Centre has significantly increased budgetary allocations for the Agriculture Ministry.
Budgetary allocation for the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmersâ Welfare surged from Rs. 27,662.67 crore in 2013-14 to Rs. 1,25,035.79 crore in 2023-24 BE.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hopen Island, Barents Sea.
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Researchers disclosed that one of Norway’s Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago witnessed its first walrus death due to Bird Flu (H5N1).
AboutHopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago
Hopen Island is situated in the southern part of the Svalbard Archipelago, between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
The island covers an area of about 47 square km, making it one of the smaller islands in the Svalbard group.
The landscape mainly consists of low-lying tundra, rocky outcrops, and coastal cliffs.
Like the rest of Svalbard, Hopen Island experiences a harsh Arctic climate. Winters are long, dark, and extremely cold, while summers are short and cool.
It serves as an important breeding groundfor seabirds such as guillemots, puffins, and kittiwakes. Polar bears are also occasionally spotted on the island, along with walruses, seals, and Arctic foxes.
It is uninhabited and largely inaccessible to humans due to its remote location and extreme weather conditions.
Historically, Hopen Island has been of strategic importance due to its location between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
H5N1 Bird Flu: Details
H5N1 originated from a virus outbreak on a goose farm in China in 1996 and has since evolved into a highly pathogenic strain.
The virus quickly spread from Europe to Africa, Asia, North America, and South America, and most recently, it reached mainland Antarctica.
H5N1 is a subtype of the influenza A virus that causes severe respiratory disease in birds, known as avian influenza or âbird fluâ.
Influenza A viruses are classified by subtypes based on the properties of their surface proteins, with H5N1 being one subtype.
How widespread is it?
The virus has affected birds in over 80 countries, resulting in mass culling of poultry and wild birds.
Furthermore, it has now begun infecting mammals, including seals, sea lions, and marine mammals.
While humans rarely contract bird flu, those at risk are typically individuals who have extensive contact with infected birds at poultry farms.
Bird flu first broke out in Maharashtra in 2006.
The H5N1 virus led to the culling of millions of poultry so as to contain the virus. But it has resurfaced from time to time.
PYQ:
[2014] Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the âTen Degree Channelâ?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ethylene Oxide (ETO)
Mains level: Health concerns related to ETO
Why in the News?
Many have announced an investigation into possible contamination of spice mixes sold by top Indian brands like MDH and Everest Masalas.
Delhi-based think tank Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) in a recent note held, âWith nearly $700 million worth of exports to critical markets at stake.â
What is Ethylene Oxide (ETO)?
Ethylene oxide is a flammable, colorless gas at temperature above 51.3 F (10.7 C). When used directly in the gaseous form or in non-explosive gaseous mixtures with nitrogen or carbon dioxide, ETO serves as a disinfectant, fumigant, sterilizing agent, and insecticide.
ETO has also been reported to be produced from natural sources. In certain plants, ethylene (a natural plant growth regulator) is degraded to ethylene oxide. ETO ia also generated from water – logged soil, manure and sewage sludge.
What are the health concerns?
ETO Usage and Contamination: ETO is a prohibited pesticide that is used as a sterilizing agent in the food industry, including spices.
Toxicity and Carcinogenicity: Residues of ETO can lead to the formation of toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as ethylene glycol. Long-term exposure to ethylene oxide is associated with various health risks, including cancers like lymphoma and leukemia.
Previous Incidents: Indian-made products, including cough syrups, have been linked to incidents where ethylene glycol contamination resulted in fatalities, particularly among children in countries like Cameroon, Gambia, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan.
Regulatory Response: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has banned the use of ETO and has flagged contamination issues in Indian spices in the past. A recent EFSA report highlighted carcinogenic chemicals found in numerous products linked to India.
Which countries have flagged safety of Indian spices?
Hong Kong: Suspended the sale of three MDH spice blends and Everest fish curry masala due to high levels of ethylene oxide (ETO).
Singapore: Ordered a recall of Everest spice mix, stating that ethylene oxide makes the spices unfit for human consumption and poses a cancer risk.
United States: The FDA is aware of the reports and is gathering additional information about the situation.
Maldives: The Maldives FDA has suspended the sale of spices produced by Everest and MDH.
Australia: Food Standards of Australia and New Zealand is working with international counterparts to understand the issue and determine if further action is required.
Bangladesh: Gathering information on companies importing possibly contaminated products and plans to carry out examinations if necessary.
What are the operational challenges faced by the Indian government?
Lack of Standardized Protocol System: Indiaâs diverse food landscape, the lack of standardised monitoring and intentional food fraud may prevent manufacturers from efficiently tracing ingredients and assessing potential risks.
Lack of Database: Many companies struggle to trace ingredients, especially raw agricultural commodities, due to the lack of standardised recordkeeping and intentional food fraud. This prevents manufacturers from assessing potential risks, compromising the safety of the entire food supply chain.
Traceability is particularly challenging for small and medium sized businesses with limited resources.
What steps is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) taking to improve the safety of spices?
Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA): The FSMA rules address both domestically produced and imported foods.
For example, the preventive controls rule requires food facilities, including those that manufacture spices, to conduct a hazard analysis, identify hazards reasonably likely to occur, and establish preventive controls for such hazards.
Spices Board and its Measures: The Spices Board announced mandatory testing of consignments shipped to Singapore and Hong Kong, and gathering technical details and analytical reports from relevant food and drug agencies.
Issuance of Guidelines: A circular dated April 30 contains guidelines to exporters on preventing ETO contamination, developed after discussions with the Indian spice industry.
Measures include voluntary testing of ETO during raw and final stages, storing ETO treated products separately, and incorporating critical control points in hazard analysis.
Way forward:
Enhanced Regulatory Oversight: Strengthen regulatory bodies such as the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to ensure strict adherence to food safety standards and regulations. Implement regular inspections, audits, and enforcement actions to monitor compliance with safety guidelines.
Improved Traceability Systems: Develop and implement robust traceability systems across the food supply chain to track the origin and movement of ingredients and products. Utilize technology such as blockchain and RFID tagging to enhance transparency and accountability.
Mains question for practiceÂ
Q Explain the health risks associated with ethylene oxide (ETO) contamination in spices.
Mains PYQ
Q Elaborate the policy taken by the Government of India to meet the challenges of the food processing sector. (UPSC IAS/2019)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: P versus NP Problem
Mains level: Application of Science and Technology for Healthcare;
Why in the News?Â
Indian Health Care system faces a new set of complex problems that seem to be harder to solve because of their inherent complexity and the constraints they threaten to impose on resources.
Quick Problems versus Complex Problems in Health Care:
Healthcare is filled with complex problems. Consider scheduling in a hospital: assigning doctors and nurses to shifts, booking operating theatres for surgeries, and organizing patient appointments.
It is an intricate puzzle that requires considering various factors â staff availability, urgency of medical cases, etc. â and potential changes such as emergency cases and cancellations.
The Quick Problems vs Complex Problems in Health Care question is this: there can be a shortcut to solve âComplex Problemsâ problems as quickly as âQuick Problemsâ problems.
The implication is that if Quick Problems equals Complex Problems, we could quickly find the optimal solution to these scheduling problems, thus significantly improving patient care.
Implications for the Healthcare System:
Impact on Antibiotic Resistance: Quick analysis of bacterial genomes and prediction of resistance patterns could lead to more effective antibiotic prescriptions, improving patient outcomes and combating antibiotic resistance.
Advancement in Cancer Treatment: Swift identification of the optimal treatment for individual cancer patients could save lives by effectively tackling the complexity of cancer mutations and treatment options.
Optimization of Insurance Decision-Making: Insurance companies grappling with ‘NP’ problems in determining premiums and packages could benefit from a shortcut provided by solving the P versus NP problem. This could lead to fairer and more accurate premiums and conditions for customers.
Better utilization of Government health sector funding: Efficiently solving complex problems could lead to better utilization of government spending on healthcare, minimizing leakage and contributing to achieving universal health coverage.
Resource Constraint Reduction and Improved Health Outcomes: By solving complex healthcare problems more efficiently, there is the potential to dramatically reduce resource constraints and improve health outcomes broadly.
Way Forward: Governments can enact policies and regulations that promote the responsible use of technology in healthcare and incentivize the adoption of evidence-based practices. This includes establishing standards for data privacy and security, fostering transparency in algorithmic decision-making, and ensuring equitable access to healthcare services.
Mains PYQÂ
Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Significance of recognizing menstrual leave as a fundamental right for women
Why in the news?
The DMK’s 2024 election manifesto in Tamil Nadu pledges to advocate for a law mandating menstrual leave for women, promoting gender equality and women’s welfare.
Tracking Regional Progress:
Indian States:
The Kerala Sahitya Academy published work, Kerala in 19th Century, mentions that Kerala was the first (in the Cochin State) to recognize the need for â period leaveâ for students and allowed it during examinations in 1912.
Kerala, in January 2023, introduced menstrual and maternity leave to all students above the age of 18.
Bihar, in 1992, allowed government employees two-day menstrual leave.
Asian Countries:Â
Japan introduced menstrual leave in 1947, Indonesia in 1948, and South Korea. Taiwan and Vietnam have also implemented paid leave. But concerning the Asian countries, the progress made by the western world, except in Sweden and Spain, is still abysmal.
Global Scenario:
International Labour Organisation report, in 2003, asked nations to recognise menstrual leave.
The World Health Organization recognised a non-governmental organisation driven World Menstrual Hygiene Day on May 28 from 2014.
Indiaâs new code on Social Security, 2020, passed by Parliament, which consolidated existing labour laws (yet to be notified), has not included the aspect of menstrual leave in its code.
Evidence related to impact:
Women laborers in the sugarcane fields of Maharashtra and agricultural laborers in Telangana have been documented to have hysterectomies as menstrual-related absences could endanger their livelihoods.
Legal Initiatives in India:
Bill in Tamil Nadu: In December 2021, S. Jothimani, Congress Member of Parliament (MP) from Tamil Nadu, had introduced a Private Member Bill named, âRight to Menstrual Hygiene and Paid Leave Bill, 2019â, which sought to bring menstrual leave into the ambit of the rights of a woman.
Bill in Arunachal Pradesh: Congress MP from Arunachal Pradesh, introduced a private member Bill on menstrual leave in 2017 (the Menstruation Benefit Bill, 2017).
Bill in Kerala: Shashi Tharoor, Congress MP from Kerala, introducing a similar Bill named The Womenâs Sexual, Reproductive and Menstrual Rights Bill, 2018.
The Supreme Court of India, early in 2023, refused to entertain a public interest litigation in Shailendra Mani Tripathi vs Union of India which sought direction to the state on menstrual leave; it thought that it is in the policy domain of the government.Â
Way Forward:Â
Legislation and Policy Implementation: Advocate for the passage of bills at both the state and national levels that mandate menstrual leave for women. Additionally, ensure effective implementation and enforcement of these policies to guarantee that women can avail themselves of their entitled leave without fear of discrimination or repercussions.
Awareness and Education: Launch comprehensive awareness campaigns to remove shame of menstruation and promote understanding of its biological, social, and cultural aspects.
Mains PYQÂ
Q Women empowerment in India needs gender budgeting. What are requirements and status of gender budgeting in the Indian context?
