Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 239AA, Consititution Bench
Mains level: Centre vs. Delhi Govt
A Constitution Bench led by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud will hear the legal battle between the Centre and the Government of Delhi for control over officials in the national capital.
What is a Constitution Bench?
- The constitution bench is the name given to the benches of the Supreme Court of India.
- The Chief Justice of India has the power to constitute a Constitution Bench and refer cases to it.
Constitution benches are set up when the following circumstances exist:
- Interpretation of the Constitution: Article 145(3) provides for the constitution of at least five judges of the court which sit to decide any case “involving a substantial question of law as to the interpretation” of the Constitution of India.
- President of India seeking SC’s opinion: When the President has sought the Supreme Court’s opinion on a question of fact or law under Article 143 of the Constitution. Article 143 of the Constitution provides for Advisory jurisdiction to the SC. As per the provision, the President has the power to address questions to the apex Court, which he deems important for public welfare.
- Conflicting Judgments: When two or more three-judge benches of the Supreme Court have delivered conflicting judgments on the same point of law, necessitating a definite understanding and interpretation of the law by a larger bench.
- The Constitution benches are set up on ad hoc basis as and when the above-mentioned conditions exist.
- Constitution benches have decided many of India’s best-known and most important Supreme Court cases, such as:
- K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (Preventive detention)
- Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (Basic structure doctrine) and
- Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India (OBC reservations) etc.
Why in news now?
- A 2018 Constitution bench decision interpreting Article 239AA had not dealt with an aspect having a bearing on the dispute over services, CJI agreed.
- The proceedings have their genesis in the Delhi HC judgment of August 4, 2017, whereby it held that for the purposes of administration, the L-G was not bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers in every matter.
- On appeal, the SC on February 15, 2017, referred the matter to decide on the interpretation of Article 239AA.
What is the 2018 Judgment all about?
- By a majority decision in July, 2018, the Constitution bench upheld the respective powers of the state Assembly and the Parliament.
- It said that while the CoM must communicate all decisions to the L-G, this does not mean that the L-G’s concurrence is required.
- In case of a difference of opinion, the L-G can refer it to the President for a decision.
- The L-G has no independent decision-making power but has to either act on the ‘aid and advice’ of the CoM or is bound to implement the decision of the President on a reference being made.
- The bench, which limited itself to the interpretation of Article 239AA, left individual issues to be decided by regular benches.
When power tussle began?
- Subsequently in 2019, a two-judge bench of the SC dealt with some individual issues arising from the power tussle between the Centre and the NCT government.
- It ruled that the Anti-Corruption Branch of the Delhi government cannot investigate corruption cases against central government officials.
- The power to appoint commissions under the Commission of Inquiry Act, 1952, would be vested with the Centre and not the Delhi government, the judgment said.
Issue over control of administrative services
- The judges, however, differed on who should have control over administrative services.
- This was challenged again in the SC where the Centre contended that the two judges could not take a decision on the question.
- The 2018 Constitution bench judgment had not interpreted the expression “insofar as any such matter as applicable to Union Territories” appearing in Article 239AA.
- The Centre has urged SC CJI Ramana to refer the matter to a five-judge Constitution bench so that the question of law can be settled before the dispute over who has control over services can be looked into.
Article 239AA of the Indian Constitution
- Article 239AA granted Special Status to Delhi among Union Territories (UTs) in the year 1991 through the 69th Constitutional Amendment.
- It provided a Legislative Assembly and a Council of Ministers responsible to such Assembly with appropriate powers.
- That’s when Delhi was named as the National Capital Region (NCT) of Delhi.
- As per this article – Public Order, Police & Land in NCT of Delhi fall within the domain and control of Central Government which shall have the power to make laws on these matters.
- For remaining matters of State List or Concurrent List, in so far as any such matter is applicable to UTs, the Legislative Assembly shall have the power to make laws for NCT of Delhi.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)
Mains level: Prospects and challenges to CBDC
Reports have said the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) digital rupee — the Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) — may be introduced in phases beginning with wholesale businesses in the current financial year.
What is Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)?
- CBDC is a central bank issued digital currency which is backed by some kind of assets in the form of either gold, currency reserves, bonds and other assets, recognised by the central banks as a monetary asset.
- The present concept of CBDCs was directly inspired by Bitcoin, but a CBDC is different from virtual currency and cryptocurrency.
- Cryptocurrencies are not issued by a state and lack the legal tender status declared by the government.
What is Currency chest?
Currency in India is managed by Currency chest. Currency chest is a place where the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) stocks the money meant for banks and ATMs. These chests are usually situated on the premises of different banks but administrated by the RBI.
Why India needs a digital rupee?
- Online transactions: India is a leader in digital payments, but cash remains dominant for small-value transactions.
- High currency in circulation: India has a fairly high currency-to-GDP ratio.
- Cost of currency management: An official digital currency would reduce the cost of currency management while enabling real-time payments without any inter-bank settlement.
Why is CBDC preferred over Cryptocurrency?
- Sovereign guarantee: Cryptocurrencies pose risks to consumers. They do not have any sovereign guarantee and hence are not legal tender.
- Market volatility: Their speculative nature also makes them highly volatile. For instance, the value of Bitcoin fell from USD 20,000 in December 2017 to USD 3,800 in November 2018.
- Risk in security: A user loses access to their cryptocurrency if they lose their private key (unlike traditional digital banking accounts, this password cannot be reset).
- Malware threats: In some cases, these private keys are stored by technical service providers (cryptocurrency exchanges or wallets), which are prone to malware or hacking.
- Money laundering: Cryptocurrencies are more vulnerable to criminal activity and money laundering. They provide greater anonymity than other payment methods since the public keys engaging in a transaction cannot be directly linked to an individual.
- Regulatory bypass: A central bank cannot regulate the supply of cryptocurrencies in the economy. This could pose a risk to the financial stability of the country if their use becomes widespread.
- Power consumption: Since validating transactions is energy-intensive, it may have adverse consequences for the country’s energy security (the total electricity use of bitcoin mining, in 2018, was equivalent to that of mid-sized economies such as Switzerland).
Features of CBDC
- High-security instrument: CBDC is a high-security digital instrument; like paper banknotes, it is a means of payment, a unit of account, and a store of value.
- Uniquely identifiable: And like paper currency, each unit is uniquely identifiable to prevent counterfeit.
- Liability of central bank: It is a liability of the central bank just as physical currency is.
- Transferability: It’s a digital bearer instrument that can be stored, transferred, and transmitted by all kinds of digital payment systems and services.
Key benefits offered
- Faster system: CBDC can definitely increase the transmission of money from central banks to commercial banks and end customers much faster than the present system.
- Financial inclusion: Specific use cases, like financial inclusion, can also be covered by CBDC that can benefit millions of citizens who need money and are currently unbanked or banked with limited banking services
- Monetary policy facilitation: The move to bring out a CBDC could significantly improve monetary policy development in India.
- Making of a regional currency: In the cross border payments domain, India can take a lead by leveraging digital Rupee especially in countries such as Bhutan, Saudia Arabia and Singapore where NPCI has existing arrangements.
Others:
- It is efficient than printing notes (cost of printing, transporting, and storing paper currency)
- It reduces the risk of transactions
- It makes tax collection transparent
- Prevents money laundering
Issues involved with CBDC
- Innovation with centralization: The approach of bringing a sovereign digital currency stands in stark contrast to the idea of decentralization.
- Liability on RBI: when bank customers wish to convert their deposits into digital rupee, the RBI will have to take these liabilities from the books of banks and onto its own balance sheet.
- Inflationary risk: Central banks would indulge in issuing more digital currencies which could potentially trigger higher inflation.
- User adoption: User adoption could also pose a major setback for the smooth roll out of the CBDC in India. The main challenges would always be user adoption and security.
- Reduced savings: Many, including various central bankers, fear that people may begin withdrawing money from their bank accounts as digital currencies issued by Central banks become more popular.
- Volatility: the risk is higher and there is more price volatility and lesser acceptance as a money instrument globally, unless the trust factor and investor protection factors change.
Way forward
- The launch of CBDCs may not be a smooth affair and still requires more clarity in India. There are still a lot of misconceptions about the concept of digital currency in the country.
- The effectiveness of CBDCs will depend on aspects such as privacy design and programmability.
- There is a huge opportunity for India to take a lead globally via a large-scale rollout and adoption of digital currencies.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cloudburst
Mains level: Flash floods and cloudbursts
Over 20 people have been killed in destruction caused by cloudbursts and flash floods in different parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand over the last three days.
What are Cloudbursts?
- A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall activity.
- Short spells of very heavy rainfall over a small geographical area can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions where this phenomenon is the most common.
- Not all instances of very heavy rainfall, however, are cloudbursts.
- A cloudburst has a very specific definition: Rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10-km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
- By this definition, 5 cm of rainfall in a half-hour period over the same area would also be categorized as a cloudburst.
How is it different from normal rainfall?
- To put this in perspective, in a normal year, India, as a whole, receives about 116 cm of rainfall over the entire year.
- This means if the entire rainfall everywhere in India during a year was spread evenly over its area, the total accumulated water would be 116 cm high.
- There are, of course, huge geographical variations in rainfall within the country, and some areas receive over 10 times more than that amount in a year.
- But on average, any place in India can be expected to receive about 116 cm of rain in a year.
- During a cloudburst event, a place receives about 10% of this annual rainfall within an hour.
How common are cloudbursts?
- Cloudbursts are not uncommon events, particularly during the monsoon months.
- Most of these happen in the Himalayan states where the local topology, wind systems, and temperature gradients between the lower and upper atmosphere facilitate the occurrence of such events.
- However, not every event that is described as a cloudburst is actually, by definition, a cloudburst.
- That is because these events are highly localized.
- They take place in very small areas which are often devoid of rainfall measuring instruments.
Why are they so destructive?
- The consequences of these events, however, are not confined to small areas.
- Because of the nature of terrain, the heavy rainfall events often trigger landslides and flash floods, causing extensive destruction downstream.
- This is the reason why every sudden downpour that leads to destruction of life and property in the hilly areas gets described as a “cloudburst”, irrespective of whether the amount of rainfall meets the defining criteria.
- At the same time, it is also possible that actual cloudburst events in remote locations aren’t recorded.
Can cloudbursts be forecasted?
- The India Meteorological Department forecasts rainfall events well in advance, but it does not predict the quantum of rainfall — in fact, no meteorological agency does.
- The forecasts can be about light, heavy, or very heavy rainfall, but weather scientists do not have the capability to predict exactly how much rain is likely to fall at any given place.
- Additionally, the forecasts are for a relatively large geographical area, usually a region, a state, a meteorological sub-division, or at best a district.
- As they zoom in over smaller areas, the forecasts get more and more uncertain.
- Theoretically, it is not impossible to forecast rainfall over a very small area as well, but it requires a very dense network of weather instruments and computing capabilities that seem unfeasible with current technologies.
- As a result, specific cloudburst events cannot be forecast. No forecast ever mentions a possibility of a cloudburst.
- But there are warnings for heavy to very heavy rainfall events, and these are routinely forecast four to five days in advance.
- Possibility of extremely heavy rainfall, which could result in cloudburst kind of situations, are forecast six to 12 hours in advance.
Are cloudburst incidents increasing?
- There is no long-term trend that suggests that cloudbursts, as defined by the IMD, are rising.
- What is well established, however, is that incidents of extreme rainfall, as also other extreme weather events, are increasing — not just in India but across the world.
- While the overall amount of rainfall in India has not changed substantially, an increasing proportion of rainfall is happening in a short span of time.
- That means that the wet spells are very wet, and are interspersed with prolonged dry spells even in the rainy season.
- This kind of pattern, attributed to climate change, does suggest that cloudburst events might also be on the rise.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pandurang Khankhoje
Mains level: Ghadr party
Lok Sabha Speaker, who is currently in Canada for the 65th Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference, will travel to Mexico where he will unveil statues of Swami Vivekananda and Maharashtra-born freedom fighter and agriculturalist Pandurang Khankhoje.
Who was Pandurang Khankhoje (1883-1967)?
- Born in Wardha, Maharashtra, in the late 19th century, Pandurang Khankhoje came in contact with other revolutionaries early on.
- As a student, Khankhoje was an ardent admirer of the French Revolution and of the American War of Independence.
- Closer to home, the Hindu reformer Swami Dayanand and his Arya Samaj movement, which called for a spirit of reform and social change, became the hero to a young student group led by Khankhoje.
Revolutionary activities abroad
- Khankhoje decided to go abroad for further training in revolutionary methods and militaristic strategy.
- At this time, the British government’s suspicions of him were also growing due to his anti-government activities.
- Before leaving, he visited Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by whom he was inspired.
- Tilak advised him to go to Japan, which was itself a strong, anti-West Asian imperialistic force then.
- After spending time with nationalists from Japan and China, Khankhoje eventually moved to the US, where he enrolled in college as a student of agriculture.
Participation in the Indian independence movement
- Khankhoje was one of the founding members of the Ghadar Party, established by Indians living abroad in 1914, mostly belonging to Punjab.
- Its aim was to lead a revolutionary fight against the British in India.
- While in the US, Khankhoje met Lala Har Dayal, an Indian intellectual teaching at Stanford University.
- Har Dayal had begun a propaganda campaign, publishing a newspaper that featured patriotic songs and articles in the vernacular languages of India.
- This was the seed from which the Ghadar Party would emerge.
How did Khankhoje reach Mexico?
- At the military academy, Khankhoje met many people from Mexico.
- The Mexican Revolution of 1910 had led to the overthrow of the dictatorial regime, and this inspired Khankhoje.
- He also reached out to Indians working on farms in the US with the aim of discussing the idea of Indian independence with them.
- Along with the Indian workers, militant action was planned by Khankhoje in India, but the outbreak of the First World War halted these plans.
- He then reached out to Bhikaji Cama in Paris, and met with Vladimir Lenin in Russia among other leaders, seeking support for the Indian cause.
Association with Mexico
- As he was facing possible deportation from Europe and could not go to India, he sought shelter in Mexico.
- Soon, in part due to his prior friendship with Mexican revolutionaries, he was appointed a professor at the National School of Agriculture in Chapingo, near Mexico City.
- He researched corn, wheat, pulses and rubber, developing frost and drought-resistant varieties, and was part of efforts to bring in the Green Revolution in Mexico.
- Later on, the American agronomist Dr Norman Borlaug, called the Father of the Green Revolution in India, brought the Mexican wheat variety to Punjab.
- Khankhoje was revered as an agricultural scientist in Mexico.
Return to India
- Both Pandurang and Jean returned to India after 1947.
- His application for visa was initially rejected by the Indian government due to the ban by the British Indian Government, but was eventually overturned.
- He settled in Nagpur and subsequently embarked on a political career.
- Pandurang Khankhoje died on 22 January 1967.
Back2Basics: Ghadar Party
Founder: Sohan Singh Bhakna, 15 July 1913
- The Ghadar Movement was an early 20th century, international political movement founded by expatriate Indians to overthrow British rule in India.
- Earlier activists had established a ‘Swadesh Sevak Home’ in Vancouver and a ‘United India House’ in Seattle to carry out revolutionary activities. Finally, in 1913, the Ghadr was founded.
- The Ghadar Party, originally known as the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, was founded on July 15, 1913 in the US by Lala Har Dayal, Sant Baba Wasakha Singh Dadehar, Baba Jawala Singh, Santokh Singh, and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
- The Ghadar party drew a sizable following among Indian expatriates in the United States, Canada, East Africa, and Asia.
- It fought against colonialism from 1914 to 1917, with the support of Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire, both of which were Central Powers opposed to the British.
- The party was organized around the weekly newspaper The Ghadar, which featured the masthead caption: Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman (an enemy of British rule); “Wanted brave soldiers to stir up rebellion in India,” the Ghadar declared.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Freedom fighters in news
Mains level: Feminist contribution in freedom struggle
Context
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Independence Day speech underlined the role of women veeranganas in our freedom movement. The initiative highlighting the brave women of our freedom struggle, under the broader celebration of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, will mark a turning point in Indian feminist history writing from an Indic perspective.
What veerangana means?
- Veerangana means a brave female, someone who can fight for their rights. A strong woman not only protects herself, but protects others too.
Veerangana’s in freedom struggle
Rani Laxmibai
- The queen of the princely state of Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai is known for her role in the First War of India’s Independence in 1857.
- Refusing to cede her territory, the queen decided to rule on behalf of the heir, and later joined the uprising against the British in 1857.
- Cornered by the British, she escaped from Jhansi fort. She was wounded in combat near Gwalior’s Phool Bagh, where she later died.
- Sir Hugh Rose, who was commanding the British army, is known to have described her as “personable, clever…and one of the most dangerous Indian leaders”.
Jhalkari Bai
- A soldier in Rani Laxmibai’s women’s army, Durga Dal, she rose to become one of the queen’s most trusted advisers.
- She is known for putting her own life at risk to keep the queen out of harm’s way.
- Till date, the story of her valour is recalled by the people of Bundelkhand, and she is often presented as a representative of Bundeli identity.
Durga Bhabhi
- Durgawati Devi, who was popularly known as Durga Bhabhi, was a revolutionary who joined the armed struggle against colonial rule.
- A member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, she helped Bhagat Singh escape in disguise from Lahore after the 1928 killing of British police officer John P Saunders.
- Later, as revenge for the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev, she made an unsuccessful attempt to kill the former Punjab Governor, Lord Hailey.
Rani Gaidinliu
- Born in 1915 in present-day Manipur, Rani Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who fought the British.
- She joined the Heraka religious movement which later became a movement to drive out the British. She rebelled against the Empire, and refused to pay taxes, asking people to do the same.
- The British launched a manhunt, but she evaded arrest, moving from village to village.
- Gaidinliu was finally arrested in 1932 when she was just 16, and later sentenced for life. She was released in 1947.
- Then PM Nehru described Gaidinliu as the “daughter of the hills”, and gave her the title of ‘Rani’ for her courage.
Rani Chennamma
- The queen of Kittur, Rani Chennamma, was among the first rulers to lead an armed rebellion against British rule.
- Kittur was a princely state in present-day Karnataka.
- She fought back against the attempt to control her dominion in 1824 after the death of her young son. She had lost her husband, Raja Mallasarja, in 1816.
- She is seen among the few rulers of the time who understood the colonial designs of the British.
- Rani Chennamma defeated the British in her first revolt, but was captured and imprisoned during the second assault by the East India Company.
Begum Hazrat Mahal
- After her husband, Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah, was exiled after the 1857 revolt, Begum Hazrat Mahal, along with her supporters, took on the British and wrested control of Lucknow.
- She was forced into a retreat after the colonial rulers recaptured the area.
Velu Nachiyar
- Many years before the revolt of 1857, Velu Nachiyar waged a war against the British and emerged victorious. Born in Ramanathapuram in 1780, she was married to the king of Sivagangai.
- After her husband was killed in battle with the East India Company, she entered the conflict, and won with support of neighbouring kings.
- She went on to produce the first human bomb as well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers in the late 1700s.
- Her army commander Kuyili is believed to have set herself ablaze and walked into a British ammunition dump.
- She was succeeded by her daughter in 1790, and died a few years later in 1796.
Conclusion
- The veeranganas are a potent symbol of nationalism and patriotism. They can overturn oppressive attitudes towards women in society. Their role and celebration in popular culture also refutes the colonial allegations about the suppression of women throughout Indian history. But it is essential to discover, rewrite and reinterpret the role and representation of these heroic women in the liberation of the motherland.
Mains question
Q. The veerangana’s are a potent symbol of nationalism and patriotism. They can overturn oppressive attitudes towards women in society. Discuss examples of them showing how they inspire women’s today.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kerala Savari
Mains level: Cab aggregators malpractices and their regulation in India
Kerala has soft launched ‘Kerala Savari’, the country’s first online taxi service owned by a State government, to ensure fair and decent service to passengers along with fair remuneration to auto-taxi workers.
What is Kerala Savari?
- Operated by the Motor Workers Welfare Board under the aegis of the Labour Department, the Kerala Savari ensures safe travel for the public at ‘government approved fares’ without any ‘surge pricing’.
- The ‘Kerala Savari’ app would be made available to the public on online platforms shortly as it is under the scrutiny of Google now.
Why such initiative?
- The alleged unfair trade practices and violation of consumer rights by private app-based cab aggregators have come as a major concern for governments.
- Recently, the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) had issued notices to cab aggregators Ola and Uber for unfair trade practices and violation of consumer rights which include:
- Charging exorbitant fares during peak hours
- Unprofessional behaviour from the part of drivers
- Lack of proper response from customer support, and
- Undue levy of cancellation charges despite the cab driver refusing to accept the ride booked by the passenger etc.
- It is against this backdrop that the Kerala government has decided to come up with an app-based platform to offer auto-taxi service for the public.
What are the main attractions of ‘Kerala Savari’?
- There will be no fluctuation in fares on Kerala Savari irrespective of day or night or rain.
- But Kerala Savari only 8% service charge in addition to the rate set by the government, whereas the private cab aggregators charge up to 20 to 30% service charge.
What are the security-related features of ‘Kerala Savari’?
- Kerala Savari is claimed as a safe and reliable online service for women, children, and senior citizens.
- This consideration has been given importance in app designing and driver registration.
- A police clearance certificate is mandatory for drivers joining the scheme apart from the required proper training.
- A panic button system has been introduced in the app.
- It has also been decided to install GPS in vehicles at a subsidised rate.
Will the new government initiative end the monopoly of private cab aggregators?
- Kerala has over five lakh autorickshaws and one lakh cabs.
- The State government plans to bring all auto-taxi workers engaged in the sector under the new platform.
- Since smartphone literacy is high in Kerala, the State is hopeful of bringing them under the scheme in a short span of time.
- In addition, the Kerala government has also decided to provide fuel, insurance, and tyre subsidies for vehicle owners in the future and has already initiated talks with major companies in this regard.
- After the evaluation of the first phase of the project in Thiruvananthapuram, it will be extended to the entire State in a phased manner.
- Kerala Savari is expected to reach Kollam, Ernakulam, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Kannur municipal limits within a month.
Regulation of Cab Aggregators in India
- The Motor Vehicles Amendment Act 2019 seeks to regulate Cab aggregators in India
- It’s the first time cab aggregators have got statutory recognition as “digital intermediaries” or “transport aggregators”.
- They are now defined as marketplaces that can be used by passengers to connect with a driver for moving from one place to another.
- The Centre will issue broad guidelines from time to time and the states will rely on them to frame their own rules to regulate the industry.
- The aggregators will also have to comply with the provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000.
- This means they will have to follow rules on storing data safely to protect the identity of users.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tigray Crisis
Mains level: Not Much
The director-general of the World Health Organization (WHO), described the Tigray crisis region as the “worst humanitarian disaster on earth”.
What is the news?
- Ethiopia has been on the brink of a civil war.
- On Nov 4 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed declared war on the country’s Tigray region.
- The Tigray region is ruled by the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF).
- The war was declared in response to the TPLF’s attack on a federal military base in Tigray.
Tigray Crisis: A backgrounder
- The animosity between Tigrayans and Eritrea goes back to the Ethiopian-Eritrean war that occurred between 1998 and 2000.
- It occurred approximately two decades ago was extremely brutal and resulted in the deaths of thousands of soldiers.
- The roots of this crisis can be traced to Ethiopia’s system of government. Since 1994, Ethiopia has had a federal system in which different ethnic groups control the affairs of 10 regions.
- The Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) – was influential in setting up this system.
- It was the leader of a four-party coalition that governed Ethiopia from 1991, when a military regime was ousted from power.
- Under the coalition, Ethiopia became more prosperous and stable, but concerns were routinely raised about human rights and the level of democracy.
How did it escalate into a crisis?
- Eventually, discontent morphed into protest, leading to a government reshuffle that saw Mr Abiy appointed PM.
- Abiy liberalized politics, set up a new party (the Prosperity Party), and removed key Tigrayan government leaders accused of corruption and repression.
- Meanwhile, Abiy ended a long-standing territorial dispute with neighbouring Eritrea, earning him a Nobel Peace Prize in 2019.
- These moves won Abiy popular acclaim, but caused unease among critics in Tigray.
- Tigray’s leaders see Abiy’s reforms as an attempt to centralize power and destroy Ethiopia’s federal system.
How bad is the humanitarian situation?
- Tigray and its neighbouring regions are facing starvation.
- There is an absence of medical facilities, no access to their own money due to shut-down banking services, ethnic and physical violence, and raids at the hands of warring forces.
- The government declared a ceasefire on humanitarian grounds but in an effort to break the TPLF in June last year, imposed a blockade on Tigray.
- This made it impossible to deliver humanitarian, economic, and medical assistance to Tigrayans.
Also read:
[Burning Issue] Ethiopian Crisis and the Geopolitics
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ICDS
Mains level: Paper 2- Early childhood care and education
Context
- The economic fallout of COVID-19 makes the necessity of quality public welfare services more pressing than ever.
- The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme is one such scheme.
What is ICDS?
- ICDS caters to the nutrition, health and pre-education needs of children till six years of age as well as the health and nutrition of women and adolescent girls.
What is anganwadi scheme?
- The scheme was started in 1975 and aims at the holistic development of children and empowerment of mother.
- It is a Centrally-Sponsored scheme. The scheme primarily runs through the Anganwadi centre. The scheme is under the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
Need for focus on early childhood care and education (ECCE)
- Low enrolment: The National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5) finds only 13.6 per cent of children enrolled in pre-primary schools.
- Weakest link: With its overriding focus on health and nutrition, ECCE has hitherto been the weakest link of the anganwadi system.
- Low awareness: Unfortunately, due to a lack of parental awareness compounded by the daily stresses of poverty, disadvantaged households are unable to provide an early learning environment.
Data to remember
According to government data, the country has 13.77 lakh Anganwadi centres (AWCs).
A meaningful ECCE programme in anganwadis
- Activity-based framework which reflect local context: To design and put in place a meaningful activity-based ECCE framework that recognises the ground realities with autonomy to reflect the local context and setting.
- Remove non-ICDS work: Routine tasks of anganwadi workers can be reduced and non-ICDS work, such as surveys, removed altogether.
- Extend Anganwadi time: Anganwadi hours can be extended by at least three hours by providing staff with an increase in their present remuneration, with the additional time devoted for ECCE.
- Change in policy mindset: ICDS needs a change in policy mindset, both at central and state levels, by prioritising and monitoring ECCE.
- Engagement with parents: Anganwadi workers must be re-oriented to closely engage with parents, as they play a crucial role in the cognitive development of young children.
Case study / value addition
In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, anganwadi centres have been geotagged to improve service delivery.
Gujarat has digitised the supply chain of take-home rations and real-time data is being used to minimise stockouts at the anganwadi centres.
Way forward
- Government must act on the three imperatives. First, while infrastructure development and capacity building of the anganwadi remains the key to improving the programme, the standards of all its services need to be upscaled.
- Second, states have much to learn from each other’s experiences.
- Third, anganwadi centres must cater to the needs of the community and the programme’s workers.
Conclusion
- Nearly 1.4 million anganwadis of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) across India must provide ECCE for the millions of young children in low-income households.
Mains question
Q. Some educationists have suggested that owing to the high workload of anganwadi workers, ECCE in anganwadis would remain a non-starter. Critically examine this statement and give dynamic suggestions to improve EECE in anganwadis.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Concept of LiFE
Mains level: Paper 3- LiFE movement
Context
In the midst of a global climate crisis, and as India gets closer to hosting the G20 presidency, it is important to recognise our country’s leadership at both ends of the climate debate: By walking the talk on our climate commitments as well as leading people-powered climate action.
Power of individual and collective action to address the climate change
- Adopting eco-friendly behaviours: According to the United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP), if one billion people out of the global population of close to eight billion adopt eco-friendly behaviours in their daily lives, global carbon emissions could drop by approximately 20 per cent.
- Such eco-friendly behaviours include turning off ACs, heaters and lights when not in use, as this, for instance, can conserve up to 282 kilowatts of electricity per day.
- Avoiding food wastage can reduce an individual’s carbon footprint by 370 kg per year.
The concept of Lifestyle for Environment
- In November 2021, at the CoP 26 in Glasgow, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in addition to announcing the panchamrit, or five climate-related commitments of the country, also articulated the concept of “Lifestyle for the Environment” (LiFE).
- Mindful and deliberate utilisation: The concept advocate for mindful and deliberate utilisation by people worldwide, instead of “mindful and wasteful consumption”.
- LiFE was launched on June 5, 2022, World Environment Day, by PM Modi, with a vision of harnessing the power of individual and collective action across the world to address the climate crisis.
- The objective of the movement is to nudge individuals and communities to adopt simple and specific climate-friendly behaviours in their daily lifestyles.
- For instance, an individual can carry a reusable cloth bag instead of a plastic bag.
- By making such daily actions an integral part of our collective social norms, LiFE aims to activate a global community of “Pro Planet People” and steer the world towards a sustainable model of development.
- Global precedents: There are already precedents of pro-planet initiatives around the world.
- For example, Denmark promotes the use of bicycles by limiting parking within the city centre and providing exclusive bike lanes.
- Japan has its unique “walk-to-school” mandate, which has been in practice since the early 1950s.
- LiFE, however, is planned as a first-of-its-kind global movement, led by India in partnership with other countries, that will provide the world with a unique people-powered platform to relentlessly focus on bringing individual and collective actions to the core of the climate action narrative.
How the LiFE moment can change people’s behaviour
- 1] Consume responsibly: The prevailing perception that climate-friendly behaviour necessarily implies a frugal lifestyle has played a major role in preventing populations worldwide from adopting a sustainable lifestyle.
- LiFE plans to methodically break down this mental model by nudging the world to consume responsibly, rather than consuming less.
- Using behavioural technique: Building on the unique insights from Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), LiFE will deploy a range of tested behavioural techniques, including nudges, social and behaviour change communication and norm influencing to make mindful consumption a mass movement.
- 2] Produce responsibly: Our society reflects our markets and vice versa.
- If sustainable choices are not supported from the supply-side, any change in our consumption patterns will only be temporary.
- By nudging the consumption patterns of the society at scale, LiFE can also trigger a huge boost for the sustainability market.
- Several green industries and a large number of jobs are likely to be initiated as a positive externality of LiFE.
- 3] Live responsibly: The Covid pandemic is a wake-up call to all of us that no matter how much technological progress we make as a global society, we all remain at the mercy of the natural world.
- As a global community of people with a shared natural world, a threat to one is a threat to all.
- In this context, through its multi-dimensional, multi-cultural and global approach, the LiFE movement can play a pivotal role in not merely reversing the effects of climate change but, at a broader level, mainstream a harmonious and mindful way of living.
Conclusion
As the world moves in fits and starts towards its shared commitment to achieve ambitious climate goals, the time is ripe for India to lead the LiFE movement and mainstream it into the climate narrative.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rohingyas
Mains level: Global refugee crisis
In a major boost to India’s policy on the Rohingya, the MHA would shift Rohingya refugees to flats meant for EWS in Delhi.
Why in news?
- This is seen as a response to the fundamentalists who claims that the NRC, CAA are against any particular community.
- India respects & follows the UN Refugee Convention 1951 & provides refuge to all, regardless of their race, religion or creed.
Who are the Rohingyas?
- Rohingya, an ethnic group, mostly Muslim, hail from the Rakhine province of west Myanmar, and speak a Bengali dialect.
- They comprise one million out of the 53 million people that live in Myanmar, forming the world’s largest stateless population in a single country.
- Universally reviled by the country’s Buddhist majority, they have been oppressed by the government since the late 1970s when the government launched a campaign to identify ‘illegal immigrants’.
- Serious abuses were committed, forcing as many as 250,000 Rohingya refugees to flee to Bangladesh.
- The 1982 Citizenship Law in former Burma made the Rohingyas stateless people.
- They have often been called the most persecuted minority in the world.
- The 1.1 million Rohingya Muslims squeezed precariously into the northwest state of Rakhine, in mainly Buddhist Burma, bordering majority Muslim Bangladesh, are stateless and unwanted.
Why are they stateless?
- To qualify for citizenship, Rohingya applicants had to renounce their identity and accept being labelled as ‘Bengalis’ on all official documents.
- They also had to prove that they could trace the presence of their family in Rakhine back three generations.
- This is extremely difficult as many Rohingya lack documents or had lost them in 2012.
Why did the Crisis happen?
- Since World War II they have been treated increasingly by Burmese authorities as illegal, interloping Bengalis, facing apartheid-like conditions that deny them free movement or state education.
- The army “clearing operations” sparked the mass exodus of Rohingyas in both October 2016.
- In August 2017, were launched after insurgents known as the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) attacked several paramilitary check posts.
- Rohingya activists claim the insurgents are mainly young men who have been pushed to breaking point by relentless oppression.
Security Implications
- The Rohingya issue and its spill over impact on Myanmar`s western peripheral region and security implications figured in the discussions is not clear.
- In all probability, the import of the ferment caused by the Rohingya migration, efforts of radical Islamists to influence some of the Rohingya youth, and the Pakistan attempts to capitalise on the situation.
- Rising anger in the Muslim world about the plight of the Rohingya has compounded fears of home-grown militancy as well as support from international jihadists.
- Illegal movement of people, combined with human trafficking and cross-border migration, can weaken Myanmar’s relations with its neighbour Bangladesh and its ASEAN partners.
Where do the Rohingya live in Delhi?
- The Rohingya live in hutments in the densely populated Kalindi Kunj and Madanpur Khadar areas in Delhi which are contiguous with Uttar Pradesh.
- Officially, about 1,200 Rohingya have been identified as among the first batch to have arrived in Delhi in 2012.
- After they protested outside the UNHCR (UN Refugee Agency) office in Delhi, they were provided with refugee cards.
Total Rohingyas in India
- In December 2017, the MHA informed Parliament that there are around 40,000 Rohingya in India, of which around 5,700 are in Jammu and also in Telangana, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan.
- Of these, only 16,000 are said to be registered with the UN refugee agency.
- The MHA claimed that the exact number is not known as many of them enter the country.
How is the Delhi government involved?
- The Foreigners Regional Registration Office (FRRO), responsible for tracking foreigners and their visas, has been requesting space at a new location for the Rohingya from the Delhi government since 2021.
- The FRRO is under the administrative control of the MHA.
When did the Rohingya come to Delhi?
- A/c to MHA, they first came to Delhi in 2012.
- They were forced to leave Myanmar in large numbers after several waves of violence, which first began in 2012.
- The Myanmar army revived the attacks in 2017 and lakhs took shelter in Bangladesh.
- Around five lakh Rohingya fled to Saudi Arabia in 2012.
What is the process of deportation?
- According to the MHA, illegal immigrants are detected, detained and deported under provisions of the Passport Act, 1920 or the Foreigners Act, 1946.
- Once a ‘foreigner’ has been apprehended by the police for staying illegally, without any document, he or she is produced before the local court.
- The powers to identify and deport them have also been delegated to State governments and UTs.
- If the accused is found guilty, they can be imprisoned for three months to eight years.
- After completing their sentence, the court orders deportation.
Have any Rohingya been deported?
- Any foreign nationals who enter into India without valid travel documents are treated as illegal immigrants.
- In 2018, seven Rohingya were deported to Myanmar.
- It was the first time that Myanmar issued a certificate of identity to the seven Rohingya. They had been picked up in Assam in 2012.
- Many Rohingyas have expressed their desire to return to their country and gave an undertaking that they were returning out of their free will.
India’s stance on Rohingyas
- Amid fears of fresh exodus of Rohingya from Myanmar, the MHA in 2017 cautioned all the States about infiltration from Rakhine State of Myanmar into Indian Territory.
- It cited the burden on the limited resources of the country that aggravates the security challenges especially in the North-East.
- It also said the rise in terrorism in the last few decades is a cause for concern in most nations and that illegal migrants are more vulnerable to getting recruited by terrorist organisations.
What is India’s stand on refugees?
- India is NOT a signatory to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol.
- All foreign undocumented nationals are governed as per the provisions of:
- The Foreigners Act, 1946
- The Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939
- The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920 and
- The Citizenship Act, 1955
Way forward: A humane approach is needed
- India must enact a National Asylum and Deportation Law. Since certain exoduses cannot be prevented due to international pressures.
- We need a proper framework to make sure that refugees can access basic public services, be able to legally seek jobs and livelihood opportunities for some source of income.
- The absence of such a framework will make the refugees vulnerable to exploitation, which is again detrimental to our own national security.
- Our judiciary has already shown the way forward on this: In 1996, the Supreme Court ruled that the state has to protect all human beings living in India, irrespective of nationality since they enjoy the rights guaranteed by Articles 14, 20, and 21 of the Constitution to all, not just Indian citizens.
- The enactment and enumeration of refugee rights will reduce our dependence on judge-centric approaches — or even worse, the whims of Home Ministry bureaucrats, police officers and politicians.
Try this
Q. In the absence of a uniform and comprehensive law to deal with asylum seekers, we lack a clear vision or policy on refugee management. In the context of this, examine the need for law to deal with asylum seeker and suggest the various aspects the law should cover.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Voter List
Mains level: Election reforms in Jammu and Kashmir
Kashmir Voters’ List Upgrade to include Non-Locals
Recently the J&K Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) announced that anyone “who is living ordinarily in J&K” can avail the opportunity to get enlisted as a voter in the Union Territory in accordance with the provisions of the Representation of the People Act.
Why in news?
- Many people who were not enlisted as voters in the erstwhile State of J&K are now eligible to vote after the reading down of Article 370 on August 5, 2019.
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) was expecting an addition of 20-25 lakh new voters in the final list in J&K.
- This has created furore among the out-streamed politicians of the erstwhile state.
What did the EC announce?
- There is no need to have a domicile certificate of J&K to become a voter.
- An employee, a student, a labourer or anyone from outside who is living ordinarily in J&K can enlist his or her name in the voting list.
- Around 25 lakh new voters are expected to be enrolled in J&K, which has 76 lakh voters on the list. The projected 18-plus population of J&K was around 98 lakh.
- After the abrogation of special provisions of Article 370, the Representation of the People Act 1950 and 1951 is applicable in J&K, which allows ordinarily residing persons to get registered in the electoral rolls of J&K.
New Voters in J&K
- Armed forces posted in J&K could also register as voters and could possibly participate in the first ever Assembly polls in the youngest Union Territory (UT) of the country.
- The existing electoral roll is being mapped into the newly delimited Assembly constituencies as per the Delimitation Commission’s final order made applicable by the Union Law Ministry.
Why are electoral rolls being revised?
- The ECI is working on fresh electoral rolls in J&K after the J&K Delimitation Commission carved out seven new Assembly constituencies in the UT earlier this year.
- The Delimitation Commission has re-drawn many constituencies and fresh electoral rolls are essential to prepare the ground for any announcement of elections in J&K.
- The last Assembly elections took place long back in 2014.
- In a latest move, the ECI has decided that it will also include any person who has attained the age of 18 years on or before October 1, 2022 in the fresh electoral rolls.
- The final electoral roll would be published in November.
Why such move?
- Prior to August 5, 2019 when J&K had special constitutional powers, the Assembly electoral rolls in the State were drawn up according to the separate J&K Representation of the People Act 1957.
- Therein only permanent residents of J&K were eligible to get registered in the Assembly rolls.
- To get voting rights, Permanent Resident Certificate and domicile certificates had to be shown.
- Several lakh residents from West Pakistan and Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, who had migrated to J&K and were living there for decades,
- They had no voting rights in Assembly elections till August 5, 2019 but were able to vote in the parliamentary elections.
Why has the ECI announcement caused a furore?
- All pseudo liberal and fundamentalist political parties in J&K have reacted sharply to the ECI announcement.
- J&K’s main regional parties also called Gupkar parties have expressed concerns that the move will open the floodgates and turn locals into an electoral minority.
- Separatists expressed concern that there was a plan to bring 25 lakh non-locals and make them eligible to cast their votes in the next J&K elections.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FRT system
Mains level: Issues with FRT
A Right to Information (RTI) response revealed that the Delhi Police treats matches of above 80% similarity generated by its facial recognition technology (FRT) system as positive results.
Why in news?
- India has seen the rapid deployment of facial recognition technology (FRT) in recent years, both by the Union and State governments, without putting in place any law to regulate their use.
What is Facial Recognition Technology?
- Facial recognition is an algorithm-based technology that creates a digital map of the face by identifying and mapping an individual’s facial features, which it then matches against the database to which it has access.
- It can be used for two purposes:
(A) 1:1 verification of identity
- Here the facial map is obtained for the purpose of matching it against the person’s photograph on a database to authenticate their identity.
- Increasingly it is being used to provide access to any benefits or government schemes.
(B) One-to-many identification
- There is the one-to-many identification of identity wherein the facial map is obtained from a photograph or video and then matched against the entire database to identify the person in the photograph or video.
- Law enforcement agencies such as the Delhi Police usually procure FRT for 1:n identification.
- It generates a probability or a match score between the suspect who is to be identified and the available database of identified criminals.
- A list of possible matches are generated on the basis of their likelihood to be the correct match with corresponding match scores.
- However, ultimately it is a human analyst who selects the final probable match from the list of matches generated by FRT.
Why is the Delhi Police using facial recognition technology?
- The Delhi Police first obtained FRT for the purpose of tracing and identifying missing children.
- The procurement was authorised under the 2018 direction of the Delhi High Court in Sadhan Haldar vs. NCT of Delhi.
Issues with FRT use
- The use of FRT presents two issues:
- Issues related to misidentification due to inaccuracy of the technology and
- Issues related to mass surveillance due to misuse of the technology
- Extensive research into the technology has revealed that its accuracy rates fall starkly based on race and gender.
- This can result in a false positive rate, where a person is misidentified as someone else, or a false negative where a person is not verified as themselves.
- Cases of a false positive result can lead to bias against the individual who has been misidentified.
- On the other hand, cases of false negative results can lead to exclusion of the individual from accessing essential schemes. Ex. Failure of biometric based authentication under Aadhaar for an 90 YO person.
Authority to Delhi Police
- The Delhi Police is matching the photographs/videos against photographs collected under Section three and four of the Identification of Prisoners Act, 1920.
- This provision has now been replaced by the Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022.
- This Act allows for wider categories of data to be collected from a wider section of people, i.e., “convicts and other persons for the purposes of identification and investigation of criminal matters”.
Why discuss this?
- At present, India does NOT have a data protection law or a FRT specific regulation to protect against misuse.
- In such a legal vacuum, there are no safeguards to ensure that authorities use FRT only for the purposes that they have been authorised to, as is the case with the Delhi Police.
- FRT can enable the constant surveillance of an individual resulting in the violation of their fundamental right to privacy.
- Yet again the nation-security narrative comes into picture which cannot be ignored.
- It is feared that the Act will lead to overbroad collection of personal data in violation of internationally recognised best practices for the collection and processing of data.
- This revelation raises multiple concerns as the use of facial recognition can lead to wrongful arrests and mass surveillance resulting in privacy violations (if used for propaganda politics).
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FTA
Mains level: India-UK FTA
India and the UK recently revived talks for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to encourage trade and investment. The FTA between India and UK is expected to be signed by October.
What is a Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?
- It is an agreement between two or more countries to minimize barriers to imports and exports of products and services among them.
- It includes reducing tariffs, quotas, subsidies or prohibitions which could limit exchange of goods and services across borders.
- The FTA might allow free trade among the two nations with a few exceptions.
- This involves a formal and mutual agreement signed between two or more countries.
- The agreement could be comprehensive and include goods, services, investment, intellectual property, competition, government procurement and other areas.
What is the status of the India-UK FTA?
- India and the United Kingdom have a multi-dimensional strategic partnership and are actively engaged in bilateral trade.
- The two countries agreed to begin formal negotiations for an FTA in January 2022, aiming to advance trade and investment relations between them.
- The fifth round of FTA talks concluded on 29 July, and the expectation is that negotiations would be completed and the stage set for the FTA by October.
- The FTA is important for both countries as it would provide a boost and create a robust framework of overall trade and investment between the two countries.
Which are the countries with which India has FTAs?
- As of April 2022, India had 13 FTAs, including the South Asian Free Trade Area, and with Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand, Singapore, Japan and Malaysia.
- The 13 also include the agreements with Mauritius, UAE and Australia signed during the last five years.
- Additionally, India has also signed six limited Preferential Trade Agreements.
What is the level of India-UK trade?
- Bilateral trade stands at $50 billion (ie approx. $35 billion in services and $15 billion in merchandise).
- India is UK’s 12th largest trading partner and accounts for 1.9% of UK’s total trade in four quarters to the end of 2022.
- UK is the seventh largest export destination for India.
- The trade balance maintained by India with UK has largely been a surplus.
- Top three services exported from India to UK are technical, trade-related and other business services, professional and management consulting services and travel.
How will an FTA with UK benefit India?
- Apart from reducing tariffs, the FTA also looks at lowering non-tariff barriers, particularly technical barriers to trade around rules of origin, investor protection and IPR.
- MoUs on joint recognition of certain educational qualifications and an outline pact on healthcare workforce have already been signed.
- Also, both UK and India have set up panels for a totalization deal being advocated by India and permitting Indian legal services for the UK.
Back2Basics: Types of Trade Agreements
(1) Free Trade Agreement – discussed above
(2) Preferential Trade Agreement
- In this type of agreement, two or more partners give preferential right of entry to certain products.
- This is done by reducing duties on an agreed number of tariff lines.
- Here a positive list is maintained i.e. the list of the products on which the two partners have agreed to provide preferential access.
- Tariff may even be reduced to zero for some products even in a PTA.
- India signed a PTA with Afghanistan.
(3) Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement
- Partnership agreement or cooperation agreement are more comprehensive than an FTA.
- CECA/CEPA also looks into the regulatory aspect of trade and encompasses and agreement covering the regulatory issues.
- CECA has the widest coverage. CEPA covers negotiation on the trade in services and investment, and other areas of economic partnership.
- It may even consider negotiation on areas such as trade facilitation and customs cooperation, competition, and IPR.
- India has signed CEPAs with South Korea and Japan.
(4) Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement
- CECA generally cover negotiation on trade tariff and Tariff rate quotas (TRQs) rates only.
- It is not as comprehensive as CEPA.
- India has signed CECA with Malaysia.
(5) Framework Agreement
- Framework agreement primarily defines the scope and provisions of orientation of the potential agreement between the trading partners.
- It provides for some new area of discussions and set the period for future liberalisation.
- India has previously signed framework agreements with the ASEAN, Japan etc.
(6) Early Harvest Scheme
- An Early Harvest Scheme (EHS) is a precursor to an FTA/CECA/CEPA between two trading partners. For example, early harvest scheme of RCEP has been rolled out.
- At this stage, the negotiating countries identify certain products for tariff liberalization pending the conclusion of actual FTA negotiations.
- An Early Harvest Scheme is thus a step towards enhanced engagement and confidence building.
Also read
[Sansad TV] Perspective: Free Trade Agreement
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mandala Art
Mains level: Not Much
Some residents of Liverpool in the UK are marveling over a mandala art the size of one and a half football pitches in length created by artist James Brunt with materials such as leaves and rocks.
What is Mandala Art?
- Literally meaning “circle” or “centre” in Sanskrit, a mandala art is defined by a geometric configuration that usually incorporates the circular shape in some form.
- Mandala patterns are a centuries-old motif that are used to depict the cosmos, and have been adapted by artists the world over, each of whom have added their own interpretation and painted it as their own.
- While it can also be created in the shape of a square, a mandala pattern is essentially interconnected.
Its origin
- It is believed to be rooted in Buddhism, appearing in the first century BC in India.
- In Hinduism, the mandala imagery first appeared in Rig Veda (1500 – 500 BCE).
- Over the next couple centuries, Buddhist missionaries travelling along the Silk Road took it to other regions.
- By the sixth century, mandalas have been recorded in China, Korea, Japan, Indonesia and Tibet.
The meaning of the motif
- It is believed that by entering the mandala and moving towards its center, one is guided through the cosmic process of transforming the universe .
- It depicts transition from one of suffering to that of joy.
- A traditional Buddhist mandala, a circular painting drawn with coloured sand, aided in meditation, with the main objective of aiding its creator to discover their true self.
- In Hinduism, a mandala or yantra is in the shape of a square with a circle at its center.
- There are various elements incorporated within the mandala, each of which has its own meaning.
- For instance, the eight spokes of the wheel (the dharmachakra) represent the eightfold path of Buddhism, the lotus flower depicts balance, and the sun represents the universe.
- Facing up, triangles represent action and energy, and facing down, they represent creativity and knowledge.
Mandala in modern Indian art
- Deep-rooted in ancient philosophy, the mandala has attained varied forms in the hands of modern and contemporary Indian artists.
- While it continues to appear in thangka paintings, it has a central place in the practice of mainstream artists associated with the tantric and neo-tantric spiritual movements.
- Choosing to transition from the more figurative depictions of the previous generations of Indian artists, in the 1960s Sohan Qadri and Prafulla Mohanty gained widespread recognition for their works.
- Their work is imbibed in tantric symbolism, such as mandalas that are also used in the rituals of tantric initiation.
- Geometric compositions also dominated works of artists such as Biren De, GR Santosh, Shobha Broota, and famously SH Raza, who visualised the bindu as the center of his universe and the source of energy and life.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Particulars of KUSUM
Mains level: Doubling farmer income
Context
- By making solar energy the ‘third crop’, promoting this innovation on a mission mode, the government can double farmers’ income.
- The famous slogan of late Lal Bahadur Shastri, “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan,” was extended by Atal Bihari Vajpayee to include “Jai Vigyan”. Now, Prime Minister Narendra Modi has extended it to, “Jai Anusandhan”.
What is doubling farmer’s income scheme
- Doubling farmers’ income is a target set by the government of India in February 2016 to be achieved by 2022.
- To promote farmers’ welfare, reduce agrarian distress and bring parity between income of farmers and those working in non-agricultural professions.
KUSUM Scheme
- The scheme would provide extra income to farmers, by giving them an option to sell additional power to the grid through solar power projects set up on their barren lands.
- It was announced in the Union Budget 2018-19.
Component of KUSUM Scheme
Component-A
- Renewable power plants of capacity 500 KW to 2 MW will be setup by individual farmers/ cooperatives/panchayats /farmer producer organisations (FPO) on their barren or cultivable lands.
Component-B
- Installation of 17.50 lakh standalone Solar Powered Agriculture Pumps.
- Individual farmers will be supported to install standalone solar pumps of capacity up to 7.5 HP. Solar PV capacity in kW equal to the pump capacity in HP is allowed under the scheme.
Component-C
- Solarization of 10 Lakh Grid-connected Solar Powered Agriculture Pumps is included in this component, Individual farmers will be supported to solarise pumps of capacity up to 7.5 HP.
Expected outcomes of KUSUM
- Welfare: By providing greater financial assistance to smaller farmers, instead of a one¬size¬fits¬all approach.
- Equity: To encourage equitable deployment, the Centre could incentivise States through target linked financial assistance and create avenues for peer learning.
- Addressing inequity within a State – This is addressed by a share of central financial assistance under KUSUM should be appropriated for farmers with small landholdings and belonging to socially disadvantaged groups.
Punchline
Annadata becoming the urjadata – This one policy has the potential to double farmers incomes within a year or two.
Challenges
- Awareness challenge: Barriers to adoption include limited awareness about solar pumps.
- Upfront contribution: The other barrier includes farmers’ inability to pay their upfront contribution.
- Regulatory hurdle: Progress on the implementation front has been rather poor due to regulatory, financial, operational and technical challenges.
Constraints in the path of doubling the income
- Outdated technology: Use of outdated and inappropriate technology is the main reason for low productivity of crops and livestock.
- Affordability: Given the pre-dominance of small and marginal farmers in Indian agriculture, affordability becomes a significant constraint on technology adoption by farmers.
- Low research in agriculture: Agricultural research in the country is constrained by resource inadequacy, regulations and intellectual property rights (IPR).
The Measures Taken by Indian Government
- Institutional Reforms: Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, Soil health card, and Prampragat Krishi Vikas Yojana- Aiming to raise output and reduce cost.
- Technological Reforms: Various Technology mission like Technology mission on cotton, Technology Mission on Oilseeds, Pulses and Maize etc.
Way forward
- To secure future of agriculture and to improve livelihood of half of India’s population, adequate attention needs to be given to improve the welfare of farmers and raise agricultural income.
- It is essential to mobilize States and UTs to own and achieve the goal of doubling farmers’; income with active focus on capacity building (technology adoption and awareness) of farmers that will be the catalyst to boost farmer’s income.
Mains question
Q. By making solar energy the ‘third crop’, promoting this innovation on a mission mode, the government can double farmers’ income. Critically analyse this statement.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Social impacts of caste system
Context
- Indra Meghwal, a nine-year-old boy from Jalore, Rajasthan, got killed. Indra had dared to drink from the pitcher of Chail Singh, the upper-caste principal of the school, a man so driven by caste entitlement and hatred that it was only death, a hate-filled sacrifice, that could keep the tradition alive.
What is caste system?
- Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and pollution.
How caste system evolved?
- According to one long-held theory about the origins of South Asia’s caste system, Aryans from central Asia invaded South Asia and introduced the caste system as a means of controlling the local populations. The Aryans defined key roles in society, then assigned groups of people to them.
Problem’s created by caste system
- Marriages: Most Indian marriages are arranged by parents. Several factors were considered by them for finding the ideal spouse. Out of which, one’s caste is a significant factor. People do not want their son or their daughter to marry a person from another caste. Just like the word “untouchables” suggests, a Brahmin would never marry a person from an SC or ST caste.
- Education: Public universities have caste-based reservations for students coming from underprivileged backgrounds. A person from this background can secure a seat in a top tier college with par or below par academic scores based on reservation. However, impoverished Brahmans are disadvantaged with this reservation system. For example, a Brahman has to score 100% on certain exams to get into a top tier university. While the lower caste applicant can even bypass the exam for getting a seat in the university.
- Jobs: A significant amount of public sector jobs are allocated based on caste reservation. Impoverished communities from Brahman backgrounds get affected significantly because of this reservation.
Case study / Value addition
Remember the exemplary act of Gopalganj IAS officer, Rahul Kumar, who had set an example by eating at the dalit widow’s house after villagers objected to her serving the mid-day meal to their children in the local school.
How Can the Government Solve this Caste Issue?
- Intercaste Marriage: Cross caste marriage can possibly eradicate the upper and lower caste mentality. Around 5% of marriages in India are between different castes. Around a quarter of the population on matrimonial sites are open to intercaste marriages at the moment.
- Intercaste Dining: Addressing caste-related issues at large public events can contribute to diversity and inclusion efforts. Several dining events were organized by local state governments to incorporate people from all around the country.
Affirmative actions by government
- Provisions in the Constitution
- Reservations in jobs
- Reservations in Centre and State legislatures
- Provisions in panchayats
- Protect stakeholders by various Acts, safeguarding their land, livelihood, and save them from social evils
Way forward
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s political agenda includes caste elimination from the country. India has improved to some extent in this 21st century on several fronts.
- However, there is still lots of room to grow. The Indian government has an effective plan of bringing people together from all walks of life. Yet, certain inherent ideological contradictions will stand in the way while solving this issue. Regardless, that should not deter our hope in escaping the shackles of casteism.
Conclusion
- It is just as Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar said, “Caste will stand in your way for political and economical reforms within India.” According to him, eradicating such a strong foundation is extremely difficult yet doable. However, the path to reform has many roadblocks in it.
Mains question
Q. Do you think Caste will stand in way for political and economical reforms within India today? Analyse in context of incidents of social discrimination based on caste hierarchy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Particulars of PMLA , ED.
Mains level: Corruption and transparency
Context
- At least 17 Opposition parties have dubbed as “dangerous” the recent Supreme Court judgement upholding amendments made in 2019 to the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), giving more powers to agencies such as the Enforcement Directorate (ED).
What are the concerns for this verdict?
- Violate fundamental rights: Petitions were filed against the amendments, which the challengers claimed would violate personal liberty, procedures of law and the constitutional mandate.
- Complex process: The petitioners included many veteran politicians who all claimed that the “process itself was the punishment”.
- Coercion of ED: There were submissions that the accused’s right against self-incrimination suffered when the ED summoned them and made them sign statements on threats of arrest.
What is PMLA?
- Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted by the government to prevent money-laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from money-laundering.
What is money laundering?
- Money laundering is the process of concealing the origin of money, obtained from illicit activities such as drug trafficking, corruption, embezzlement or gambling, by converting it into a legitimate source.
What is ED?
- The Directorate of Enforcement is a law enforcement agency and economic intelligence agency responsible for enforcing economic laws and fighting economic crime in India. It is part of the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, Government Of India.
What acts it covers?
- Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA)
- Fugitive Economic Offenders Act
- Foreign Exchange Management Act
- Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA)
Roles and functions of the ED
- Summon, Search and seizure: The ED carries out search (property) and seizure (money/documents) after it has decided that the money has been laundered, under Section 16 (power of survey) and Section 17 (search and seizure) of the PMLA.
- Arrest and detentions: On the basis of that, the authorities will decide if an arrest is needed as per Section 19 (power of arrest).
- Attachment of property: Under Section 50, the ED can also directly carry out search and seizure without calling the person for questioning. It is not necessary to summon the person first and then start with the search and seizure.
- Filing of chargesheet: If the person is arrested, the ED gets 60 days to file the prosecution complaint (chargesheet) as the punishment under PMLA doesn’t go beyond seven years.
Why ED is making news?
- Selective witch-hunt: The ED has often been attacked for initiating investigations, raiding and questioning leaders of opposition parties, be it under the current regime or under past governments.
Why ED is on target?
- Huge discretions: The ED is the only Central agency in the country that does not require permission from the government to summon or prosecute politicians or government functionaries for committing economic offences like money laundering.
- Used for petty crimes: PMLA is pulled into the investigation of even “ordinary” crimes and assets of genuine victims have been attached.
- Actual purpose denigrated: PMLA was a comprehensive penal statute to counter the threat of money laundering, specifically stemming from the trade in narcotics.
- Violations of Rights: PMLA was enacted in response to India’s global commitment to combat the menace of money laundering. Instead, rights have been “cribbed, cabined and confined”.
Issues with PMLA
- Misuse of central agencies: PMLA is being pulled into the investigation of even ordinary crimes by the Enforcement Directorate.
- Seizing of assets: Assets of genuine victims have been attached. The ED could just walk into anybody’s house.
- Politically motivated raids: In all this, the fundamental purpose of PMLA to investigate the conversion of “illegitimate money into legitimate money” was lost.
- Opacity of charges: Petitioners pointed out that even the Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR) – an equivalent of the FIR – is considered an “internal document” and not given to the accused.
- Vagueness over evidence: The accused is called upon to make statements that are treated as admissible in evidence.
- Harassment: The ED begins to summon accused persons and seeks details of all their financial transactions and of their family members.
- Against individual liberty: The initiation of an investigation by the ED has consequences that have the potential of curtailing the liberty of an individual.
Way ahead
- It is unlikely that corruption can be substantially reduced without modifying the way government agencies operate.
- The fight against corruption is intimately linked with the reform of the investigations.
- Therefore the adjudicating authorities must work in cooperation and ensure the highest standards of transparency and fairness.
Mains question
Q. The trust in premier investigating institutions, and their credibility, is at stake. Is the ED a tool to investigate financial skulduggery or a stick to browbeat opposition leaders? Critically examine.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: India- SE Asia Cultural Linkages
As part of his visit to Thailand for the ninth India-Thailand joint commission meeting, External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar visited a temple in Bangkok.
Why in news?
- The temple is the Royal Brahmin Office of the Thai Royal Court and is the official centre of Hinduism in Thailand.
- It highlights the long history of cultural contacts between India and Thailand.
Making of ‘Greater India’ in Southeast Asia
- India and the Southeast Asia region share a long history of cultural and commercial relations.
- The classical Sanskrit and Pali texts from India carry references of the region using various names such as Kathakosha, Suvarnabhumi (the land of god) or Suvarnadvipa (the golden island), indicating that this was a region that attracted Indian merchants.
- Trade in spices, aromatic wood and most importantly gold is known to have flourished.
- In more recent times, European and Indian scholars have referred to Southeast Asia as ‘Farther India’, ‘Greater India’, or ‘Hinduised or Indianized states’.
What one mean by ‘Farther India’?
- The first person to do an in-depth study of the process of ‘Indianisation’ in Southeast Asian countries was a French scholar named George Coedes.
- He coined the term ‘Farther India’ to refer to those states that experienced “the civilizing activity of India’.
- Geographically, it refers to Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar and the Malay states.
- The Sanskrit, Buddhist, and Jain texts indicate that interactions between the two regions go back more than two thousand years ago, mainly through sea voyages and that trade played an important role.
- They were also accompanied by Brahmin priests, Buddhist monks, scholars and adventurers and all of them played an important role in the transmission of Indian culture to the natives of Southeast Asia.
- Some of the merchants and Brahmin priests married the local girls and were often employed by the local rulers.
Limitations to Indian influence
- Indian expansion into Southeast Asia cannot be compared to European colonization since Indians were not complete strangers to the population of Southeast Asia and had pre-existing trade relations.
- In the early 20th century, the nationalist historians of India frequently referred to the ancient Indian kingdoms in Southeast Asia as its ‘colony’.
- Historian RC Majumdar noted that the Hindu colonists brought with them the whole framework of their culture and civilization.
- This was transplanted in its entirety among the people who had not emerged from their primitive barbarism.
- More recently the colonization theory has been rejected on the ground that there is very little evidence of conquest or direct political influence in the ancient Southeast Asian kingdoms.
Visible cultural influence
- The first Indian kingdom to come up in Southeast Asia was Funan, which is the predecessor of modern Cambodia and Lin-yi in southern Vietnam, both of which came up in the second century CE.
- Contemporary Southeast Asian society carries several pieces of evidence of the cultural impact of these interactions.
- Many local languages in the region, including Thai, Malay, and Javanese contain words of Sanskrit, Pali and Dravidian origin in significant proportions.
- The Thai language is written in script derived from Southern Indian Pallava alphabet.
- Perhaps the most important influence of India on Southeast Asia was in the field of religion and how Shivaism, Vaishnavism, Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism and later Sinhalese Buddhism came to be practised in the region.
- The political and administrative institutions and ideas, especially the concept of divine authority and kingship, are largely shaped by the Indian practices.
- For example, the Thai king is considered as an incarnation of Vishnu.
- The episodes of Ramayana and Mahabharata are regularly featured in puppet shows and theatre events.
- In terms of architecture, monuments like Borobodur Stupa in Java, the Angkor Vat temple in Cambodia, My Son temple in Vietnam are some of the best examples of Indian influence in the region.
India’s religious links to Thailand
- In the early centuries of the Common Era, Thailand, which was historically known as Siam, was under the rule of the Funan Empire.
- Following the decline of the Funan Empire in the sixth century CE, it was under the rule of the Buddhist kingdom of Dvaravati.
- In the 10th century, the region came under Khmer rule, which is also known to have links with India.
- A Tamil inscription found in Takua-pa testifies to trade links between the Pallava region of South India and southern Thailand.
- A mercantile corporation of South Indians called Manikarramam had established a settlement here and built its own temple and tank, and lived as a ‘self-contained’ colony.
- It is important to note that Brahmanism and Buddhism existed alongside each other in Thailand in the pre-Sukhothai period of the 13th century.
Cult of Rama
- The Ramayana known in Thailand as Ramakriti (the glory of Rama) or Ramakien (the account of Rama) — has provided an outlet of cultural expression in Thailand for both the elite and the common man.
- Episodes from the epic are painted on the walls of Buddhist temples and enacted in dramas and ballets.
- Although there is no archaeological evidence of the story of Rama in Thailand, certain towns in the country have legends related to Rama’s life connected with them.
- For instance, Ayutthaya in Central Thailand, which emerged in the 10th century CE, is derived from Ayodhya, birthplace of Lord Rama.
- Desai writes that “from the 13th century onwards, several Thai kings assumed the title Rama, which has become hereditary during the present dynasty.”
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UNCLOS
Mains level: High seas regulation
A delegation from India and other member countries of the UN are in New York to deliberate on a one-of-its-kind agreement to conserve marine biodiversity in the high seas, namely the oceans that extend beyond countries’ territorial waters.
What is the news?
- The agreement follows a resolution by the UN General Assembly.
- The pact is expected to be the final in a series set in motion since 2018 to draft an international legally binding instrument under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
Why need Ocean Diversity Pact?
(1) Deciding on rights of explorers
- A key aspect of the agreement is deciding on the rights of companies that undertake exploration for biological resources in the high seas.
- It is under discussion if companies have absolute rights on any discovery or extraction in these regions or should they share their gains, in terms of intellectual property and royalties with an UN-prescribed body.
(2) Regulation for exotic items
- The focus of mining activity in the sea has been for gas hydrates, precious metals and other fossil fuel
- However, with advances in biotechnology and genetic engineering, several companies see potential in exotic microbes and other organisms — several of them undiscovered — that abide in the deep ocean and could be used for drugs and vaccines.
(3) ‘Blue Economy’ policy of India
- The Union Cabinet approved a ‘Blue Economy’ policy for India, a nearly ₹4,000-crore programme spread over five years.
- This among other things will develop a manned submersible vessel as well as work on bio-prospecting of deep-sea flora and fauna including microbes.
- Studies on sustainable utilisation of deep sea bio-resources will be the main focus.
What is UNCLOS?
- UNCLOS is sometimes referred to as the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty.
- It came into operation and became effective from 16th November 1982.
- It defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world’s oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources.
- It has created three new institutions on the international scene :
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea,
- International Seabed Authority
- Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
Note: UNCLOS does not deal with matters of territorial disputes or to resolve issues of sovereignty, as that field is governed by rules of customary international law on the acquisition and loss of territory.
Major conventions:
There had been three major conferences of UNCLOS:
- UNCLOS I: It resulted in the successful implementation of various conventions regarding Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zones, Continental Shelf, High Seas, Fishing Rights.
- UNCLOS II: No agreement was reached over breadth of territorial waters.
- UNCLOS III: It introduced a number of provisions. The most significant issues covered were setting limits, navigation, archipelagic status and transit regimes, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), continental shelf jurisdiction, deep seabed mining, the exploitation regime, protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes.
The convention set the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined baseline.
These terminologies are as follows:
(1) Baseline
- The convention set the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined baseline.
- Normally, a sea baseline follows the low-water line, but when the coastline is deeply indented, has fringing islands or is highly unstable, straight baselines may be used.
(2) Internal waters
- It covers all water and waterways on the landward side of the baseline.
- The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters.
- A vessel in the high seas assumes jurisdiction under the internal laws of its flag State.
(3) Territorial waters
- Out to 12 nautical miles (22 km, 14 miles) from the baseline, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource.
- Vessels were given the Right of Innocent Passage through any territorial waters.
- “Innocent passage” is defined by the convention as passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not “prejudicial to the peace, good order or the security” of the coastal state.
- Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and spying are not “innocent”, and submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag.
- Nations can also temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing so is essential for the protection of their security.
(4) Archipelagic waters
- The convention set the definition of “Archipelagic States”, which also defines how the state can draw its territorial borders.
- All waters inside this baseline are designated “Archipelagic Waters”.
- The state has sovereignty over these waters mostly to the extent it has over internal waters, but subject to existing rights including traditional fishing rights of immediately adjacent states.
- Foreign vessels have right of innocent passage through archipelagic waters, but archipelagic states may limit innocent passage to designated sea lanes.
(5) Contiguous zone
- Beyond the 12-nautical-mile (22 km) limit, there is a further 12 nautical miles (22 km) from the territorial sea baseline limit, the contiguous zone.
- Here a state can continue to enforce laws in four specific areas (customs, taxation, immigration, and pollution) if the infringement started or is about to occur within the state’s territory or territorial waters.
- This makes the contiguous zone a hot pursuit area.
(6) Exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
- These extend 200 nm from the baseline.
- Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources.
- In casual use, the term may include the territorial sea and even the continental shelf.
(7) Continental shelf
- The continental shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margin’s outer edge, or 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the coastal state’s baseline, whichever is greater.
India and UNCLOS
- As a State party to the UNCLOS, India promoted utmost respect for the UNCLOS, which established the international legal order of the seas and oceans.
- India also supported freedom of navigation and overflight, and unimpeded commerce based on the principles of international law, reflected notably in the UNCLOS 1982.
- India is committed to safeguarding maritime interests and strengthening security in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) to ensure a favorable and positive maritime environment.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Partition of Bengal, Lord Curzon
Mains level: Partition of Bengal and its aftermath
The 119-year-old Curzon Gate in Bardhaman in West Bengal is at the centre of a political row.
Who was Lord Curzon?
- Born in 1859, Curzon was a British conservative politician who was educated at the elite institutions of Eton and Oxford.
- He served as Under-Secretary of State for India (1891-1892), and for Foreign Affairs (1895-1898), before being appointed Viceroy of India in 1899.
- As viceroy, his administration was known for intense activity and emphasis on efficiency.
- He stated in his budget speech in 1904, “Efficiency of administration is, in my view, a synonym for the contentment of the governed”.
Rise to infame
- Of all the Viceroys of India, Curzon is possibly the most criticised — he is the man who partitioned Bengal in 1905, and triggered a wave of Bengali nationalism that contributed to the wider Indian national movement.
- He was also one of the more openly imperialist of viceroys, and a man who saw Britain’s rule over India as critical to the survival of empire.
- In 1900, Curzon famously stated, “We could lose all our [white settlement] dominions and still survive, but if we lost India, our sun would sink to its setting.”
His works
- Curzon created a separate Muslim majority province of the North-West Frontier Province, sent a British expedition to Tibet and established a separate police service.
- He was instrumental in establishing the Archaeological Survey of India, in order to study and protect historical monuments.
- Early on in his career, Curzon earned some praise from his colonial subjects for taking action against Europeans in a number of high-profile racist attacks against Indians.
- In 1899, he punished white soldiers for raping a woman in Rangoon; he disciplined soldiers of the 9th Lancers for beating an Indian cook in Sialkot to death in 1902.
- He had tried unsuccessfully to get the Calcutta High Court to change the meagre punishment given to an Assam tea manager for murdering a “coolie”.
Why was he disliked then?
- Curzon was both vexed and enraged by the growing nationalist movement in India and he sought to throttle the growing aspirations of the educated Indian middle class.
- A staunch imperialist, he took a series of extremely unpopular measures, including passing, in 1899, the Calcutta Municipal Amendment Act.
- He reduced the number of elected representatives in the Calcutta Corporation.
- Among others was the Indian Universities Act (1904), that placed Calcutta University under government control, and the Indian Official Secrets Amendment Act (1904) which reduced the freedom of the press even further.
- Ironically though, it was his biggest and most reviled decision — to partition Bengal in 1905 — that led to a spurt in nationalist sentiment and revitalized the Congress.
How and why did the partition of Bengal take place?
- Calcutta was the capital of the British Raj, and Bengal Presidency was one of the largest provinces in India, populated by more than 78 million people.
- It was such a huge province encompassing present-day West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Assam.
- For long, the British had maintained that Bengal was too large to efficiently manage and administer; it was also believed that with Calcutta as the nerve centre of the educated nationalists, the resistance to colonial rule would only increase.
- Home Secretary H H Risley noted in 1904, “Bengal united is a power; Bengal divided will pull in several different ways.
Actual course of Partition
- In July 1905, Curzon announced the partition of Bengal into two provinces.
- East Bengal and Assam, with a population of 38 million, was predominately Muslim, while the western province, called Bengal, and was reduced to 55 million people, primarily Hindus.
- Protests began almost immediately after the announcement, with meetings taking place in more than 300 cities, towns, and villages across Bengal.
What were the consequences of the partition?
- In opposition to the partition, nationalist leaders organized a campaign a boycott British goods and institutions and encouraged the use of local products.
- After a formal resolution was passed at a meeting in Calcutta in August 1905, the Swadeshi movement began.
- Students were at the forefront of the movement, which was characterized by boycotts of British educational institutions and law courts, and large bonfires of imported cotton textiles.
- There was a surge in nationalist rhetoric, and the song ‘Bande Mataram’, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, became the informal anthem of the movement.
- The Swadeshi movement and boycott was not restricted to Bengal, and spread to other parts of the country, including Punjab, Maharashtra, and parts of the Madras Presidency.
- A number of secret societies, such as the Anushilan Samiti of Bengal, sought to overthrow British rule through violent means.
- Revolutionary groups used bombs, attempted to assassinate colonial officials, and engaged in armed robberies to finance their activities.
(Irreversible) Revocation of the Partition
- In 1905, Curzon resigned and returned to England after losing a power struggle with the commander-in-chief of the British Army, Lord Kitchener.
- The protests continued after his exit, and the colonial government in 1911 announced the reunification of Bengal.
- Thenceforth the capital of the Raj was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
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